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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/practiceofarchiOObenj 


PRACTICE    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 


CONTAINING 


the  Vive  orders  of  architecture, 


AND 


AN    ADDITIONAL    COLUMN    AND    ENTABLATURE, 


ELEMENTS    AND  DETAILS    EXPLAINED    AND    ILLUSTRATED, 


WITH    ALL    THEIR 


FOR   THE    USE    OF 


CARPENTERS    AND    PRACTICAL    MEN. 
®PK«>  Sfptfi  plates. 


Br  ASHEr\bENJAMIN,    Architect, 


Author  of  "  The  American  Builder's  Companion,"    "  The   Rudiments  of  Architecture,"  and 
"The  PraVical  House  Carpenter." 


BOWON: 

PUBLISHED    BY   THE   AUTHOR  AND    CARTER,   HENDEE    &.    CO. 

NEW  YORK-COLLINS    &   CO. 


J 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  t*33, 

by  Asher  Benjamin, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


£4- 


C  L  A  P  P      AND      HULL       PRINTERS. 


PREFACE. 


I  have  endeavored,  in  this  Treatise,  to  avoid  a  defect  which  is  very 
generally  complained  of  in  books  of  this  kind  ;  that  is,  a  want  of  parti- 
cularity in  the  details,  and  of  a  clear,  simple  explanation  of  them.  In 
cities,  where  Architects  are  always  at  hand,  this  deficiency  is  not  so  much 
felt  ;  since  the  Carpenters  there  stand  in  need  of  no  further  knowledge 
upon  the  subject,  than  such  as  may  enable  them  to  put  into  practice  the 
drawings  furnished  by  the  Architect.  But  in  villages,  the  case  is  different. 
Those  Carpenters  in  country  villages  who  aspire  to  eminence  in  their  busi- 
ness, having  no  Architect  to  consult,  are  under  the  necessity  of  studying 
the  science  thoroughly  and  without  a  master.  To  them,  therefore,  is  this 
book  peculiarly  adapted  ;  for  it  contains  the  principles  of  many  expensive 
folios,  condensed  into  a  narrow  space  and  applied  to  modern  practice. 

The  time  has  been,  within  my  own  recollection,  when  New  England 
did  not  contain  a  single  professed  Architect.  The  first  individual  who  laid 
claim  to  that  character,  was  Charles  Bulfinch,  Esq.  of  this  city  ;  to  whose 
classical  taste  we  are  indebted  for  many  fine  buildings.  The  construction 
of  the  Franklin  Street  houses,  of  which  that  gentleman  was  the  Architect, 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  good  taste  ;  and  Architecture,  in  this  part  of  the 
country,  has  advanced  with  an  accelerated  progress  ever  since.  But  though 
Architecture  has  certainly  improved,  and  rapidly,  too,  within  late  years,  a 
large  proportion  of   the  vast   number   of  buildings   which   meet   the  eye,  of 


60Jf)H 


jv  PREFACE. 

all  classes  and  sizes,  and  constructed  for  all  purposes,  are  totally  destitute 
of  architectural  taste.  This  defect  does  not  arise  from  parsimony  ;  for  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  see  buildings  of  large  dimensions  burdened  with  a  pro- 
fusion of  expensive  and  misplaced  finery,  which  forms  anything  but  ornament. 
Buildings  of  this  class,  which  under  skilful  hands  might  have  become  proud 
monuments  of  public  taste,  are  mortifying  and  repulsive  objects  to  those 
who  take  an  interest  in  the  science  of  Architecture. 

It  has  been  too  prevalent  a  habit,  among  those  who  would  not  think 
themselves  capable  of  instructing  a  Carpenter  in  the  art  of  planing  or  sawing 
boards,  or  a  bricklayer  in  laying  bricks,  to  undertake  the  much  more  difficult 
task  of  becoming  their  own  Architects.  The  consequence  is,  that  such 
persons  proceed  to  build  without  any  fixed  system ;  unlooked  for  difficulties 
are  soon  encountered,  which  lead  to  expensive  alterations,  and  the  harmony 
of  the  building  is  destroyed.  Nor  is  this  evil  confined  to  private  buildings. 
The  committees  selected  to  superintend  our  public  edifices  are  apt  to  cramp 
the  invention  of  the  Architect  by  their  economy,  or  pervert  it  by  their 
fancies  ;  so  that  specimens  of  the  taste  of  some  member  of  the  committee 
can  usually  be  discerned  by  a  skilful  eye,  among  our  most  scientific  compo- 
sitions. But  the  evil  is  certainly  decreasing.  Knowledge  of  the  science  is 
rapidly  gaining  ground,  and  the  increased  attention  attracted  towards  the 
subject  disposes  those  who  have  not  the  necessary  information  to  confide  in 
those  who  have. 

The  principles  and  practice  of  the  science  are  developed,  in  the  follow- 
ing pages,  in  a  detailed  and  systematic  manner.  The  text  is  taken  from  the 
Grecian  system,  which  is  now  universally  adopted  by  the  first  professors  of 
the  art,  both  in  Europe  and  America ;  and  whose  economical  plan,  and  plain 
massive  features,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  republican  habits  of  this  country. 


PREFACE.  v 

I  have  given  examples  of  each  of  the  five  orders  of  Architecture  ;  first 
in  the  usual  way,  then  repeating  their  details  upon  a  large  scale.  There 
are  likewise  added  a  Column  and  Entablature,  selected  from  the  Grecian 
antiquities,  and  standing,  with  regard  to  expense,  between  the  Tuscan  and 
Doric  orders. 

I  have  also  given  six  examples  of  Frontispieces  and  Porticoes,  with 
their  details  drawn  on  a  large  scale.  To  these  are  subjoined  explanations 
and  practical  observations  on  their  proportions  and  adaptation  to  the  build- 
ings in  which  they  are  to  be  used  :  also,  a  variety  of  examples  of  Cornices, 
for  both  external  and  internal  finishings,  and  of  Architraves  and  Base  Mould- 
ings, accurately  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size  for  practice,  and  accompanied 
with  practical  observations  on  their  size  and  fitness  ;  examples  of  Doors, 
Windows,  and  their  decorations  ;  Ornamental  Mouldings,  Stairs,  and  Car- 
pentry ;  together  with  all  the  elements  of  Architecture  which  are  necessary 
to  supply  the  wants  of  the  practical  builder.  To  these  are  added  a  complete 
drawing  of  a  Church,  with  all  its  details  laid  down  in  imitation  of  working 
drawings,  with  suitable  explanations. 


ASHER    BENJAMIN. 


Boston,  March  19,  1833. 


CONTENTS    OF    PLATES. 


Practical  Gkometry Plate  I. 

Application  of  the  Conic  Section  to  Grecian  Mouldings II. 

Examples,  showing  how  to  draw  Grecian  Mouldings III. 

Examples,  showing  how  to  draw  Roman  Mouldings IV. 

Example  of  the  Tuscan  order V. 

Details  of  the  Tuscan  order VI. 

Example  of  a  Column  and  Entablature VII. 

Details  of  the  Column  and  Entablature VIII. 

Example  of  the  Doric  order IX. 

Details  of  the  Doric  order X.  and  XI. 

Example  of  the  Ionic  order XII. 

Details  of  the  Ionic  order XIII. 

Second  example  of  the  Ionic  order XI\  . 

Details  of  the  second  example  of  the  Ionic  order XV . 

Ionic  Volute,  figured  for  practice XVI. 

Example  of  the  Ionic  Capital,  figured  for  practice XVII. 

Example  of  the  Corinthian  order XVIII. 

Example  of  the  Corinthian  Capital,  figured  for  practice XIX. 

Details  of  the  Corinthian  order XX. 

Example  of  the  Composite  order XXI. 

Details  of  the  Composite  order XXII. 

Example  of  the  Composite  Capital,  figured  for  practice XXIII. 

Examples  of  Pedestals  for  four  of  the  orders XXIV. 

Example  of  a  Frontispiece XXV. 

Example  of  a  Frontispiece,  with  side  lights XXVI. 

Details  of  do XXVII. 

Example  of  a  Frontispiece,  with  circular  head XXVIII. 


CONTENTS.  vii 

Example  of  a  Frontispiece,  with  pilasters Plate  XXIX. 

Example  of  an  Ionic  Portico XXX. 

Details  of  the  Ionic  Portico XXXI. 

Example  of  a  Composite  Portico XXXII. 

Examples  of  Cornices  for  external  finishing XXXIII.  and  XXXIV. 

Examples  of  Cornices  for  internal  finishing XXXV.  and  XXXVI. 

Example  of  Centre  pieces XXXVII. 

Example  of  Architraves XXXVIII. 

Example  of  Common  and  Sliding  Doors XXXIX  and  XL. 

Details  of  Sliding  Doors XLI. 

Examples  of  Sash  Frames,  Shutters,  &.c XLH.  and  XLIII. 

Examples  of  Base  Mouldings XLIV. 

Examples  of  Vases,  Sur-base  Mouldings,  &c XLV. 

Examples  of  Ornamental  Mouldings XL  VI. 

Examples  of  Chimney  pieces XL  VII.  and  XL  VIII. 

Examples  of  Scrolls,  Curtail  Step,  and  Handrailing XLIX.  and  L. 

Ground  Plan  of  a  Church,  with  some  details LI. 

Gallery  Plan  of  the  same  Church,  with  details LII. 

Front  and  side  Elevation  of  the  same  Church LIII.  and  LIV. 

Plan  of  the  Ceiling,  inverted,  with  details LV. 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  Pulpit,  with  details LVI. 

Examples  of  Carpentry LVH.  and  LVIII. 

Example  of  tlie  Corinthian  order,  from  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates LIX. 

Examples  for  Fences,  Window  Guards,  and  Frets LX. 


ERRATA.— On  page  78,  line  14,  for  "  first-mentioned"  read  "  second-mentioned.' 
"        "     17,  for  "  second  "  read  "  first." 
"       "    20,  for  "  first  "  read  "  second." 
"        "    21,  for  "  latter  "  read  "  first." 


I  trust  the  following  Tables  will  be  found  useful  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  making 
estimates  on  Iron  Work.  In  my  own  practice,  I  have  often  felt  the  want  of  something  of  the 
kind.  The  fractions  of  an  ounce  1  have  given  n6  further  than  the  first  decimal  figure,  supposing 
that  would  be  accurate  enough  for  our  purpose. 

A  Table  showing  the  Weight  of  a  square  foot  of  Cast  and  Malleable  Iron,  Copper,  and  Lead, 
from  one  sixteenth  to  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick. 


CAST   IRON, 

MALL.    IKON. 

COPPER. 

LEAD. 

lbs. 

oz. 

* 

lbs.        oz. 

lbs. 

OZ. 

lbs.       OZ. 

One  sixteenth  of  an 

inch  thick 

2 

6T6o- 

o        78 
-           'To 

2 

15 

3      11 

One  eighth 

a 

4 

13T% 

4     ISA 

5 

14 

7       6 

Three  sixteenths 

a 

.    7 

4 

1       ?tV 

8 

13 

11        1 

One  fourtli 

<« 

9 

io& 

9     loft 

11 

12 

14     12 

A  Tabic  shoiving  the  Weight  of  one  foot  in  length  of  Cast  and  Malleable  Iron,  from  one  half 
to  out  inn!  one  half  inch  square;  also  of  round  Rods,  from  one  half  to  one  and  a  half 
inch  in  diameter. 


One  half  of  an  inch 

Five  eighths 

Three  fourths 

Seven  eighths    . 

One  inch         .... 

One  and  one  eighth  of  an  inch 

One  and  one  quarter         " 

One  and  one  half  " 


CA.ST    IRON. 

MALL.    IRON. 

ROUND    RODS. 

OZ. 

OZ. 

OZ. 

12ft 

13ft, 

10ft 

a 

20ft 

16ft 

29 

29ft 

23ft 

40ft 

31& 

.    m 

53ft 

41& 

67ft 

52ft 

■   80ft 

83 

64ft 

116 

1191 

93  fo 

A  Table  shoiving  the  Weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  several  Mnds  of  Timber,  and  other  Materials. 


lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Ash 

47ft 

Coal,  Newcastle 

79  3  o 
'yT55 

Mahogany 

35 

Beech 

&h 

Earth 

95  to  125 

Marble 

169 

Brass 

523 

Elm 

34 

Oak 

52 

Brick 

115 

Granite 

164 

Pine,  yellow 

262 

Brickwork 

117 

Gravel 

120 

Sea  Water 

621 

Cast  Iron 

450 

Iron,  malleable 

475 

Water 

62 

Clay 

125 

Lead 

709 

Zinc 

4391 

PI  ATE 


Fui    2. 


Fiq 


Fig.  6 


Fiy.  5. 


Siff.  8. 


PRACTICE    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 


PRACTICAL      GEOMETRY. 


PLATE   I. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  method  of  drawing  an  oval  to  any  given  length 
and  breadth.  Let  A  C  be  the  larger,  D  B  the  smaller  diameter, 
and  g  the  centre  of  the  oval.  Deduct  one  half  of  the  difference 
between  A  g  and  D  g  from  D  g,  and  with  the  remaining  part  of 
D  g  and  from  A  and  C  mark  the  centres  f  and  e.  On  f  describe 
the  arc  n  A  o  ;  and  on  e,  the  arc  I  C  m.  Make  B  h  equal  to  A  f  or 
e  C  ;  join  f  h,  and  bisect  /  h  at  i ;  draw  i  k  perpendicular  to  f  h, 
intersecting  B  D  at  k  ;  from  k  draw  k  o,  cutting  A  C  at  f,  and  k  m, 
cutting  A  C  at  e  ;  make  g  j  equal  to  g  k  ;  and  from  j  draw  j  f  n  and 
j  e  I.  Then  on  k  and  j  as  centres,  with  either  of  the  distances  k  o, 
k  m,  j  I  or  j  n,  as  a  radius,  describe  the  arcs  o  B  m  and  n  T>  I  ; 
and  the  oval  is  completed. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  method  of  making  a  right  angle  with  a  ten  foot 
rod.  Suppose  A  B  and  B  C  to  be  two  sills  to  a  building,  and  B  one 
of  its  angles.  Suppose  it  required  to  place  them  at  right  angles 
with  each  other.  Measure  off  upon  A  B  eight  feet  to  a,  and  on 
B  C  six  feet  to  b  ;  then  make  the  diagonal  line  a  b  exactly  ten  feet, 
and  B  A  and  B  C  will  be  at  right  angles  with  each  other. 

3 


10 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


Fi<*.  3  shows  a  method  of  describing  an  ellipsis  with  a  cord.  Let 
A  B  be  the  transverse,  and  C  D  the  conjugate  diameter.  With 
one  half  of  the  transverse  diameter  as  a  radius,  and  on  C,  describe 
an  arc  cutting  A  B  at  e  and  /.  At  these  points  fix  in  pins,  a  cord 
being  placed  around  the  pins  and  brought  together  at  C  ;  then  move 
the  cord  round  from  C,  towards  g,  and  it  will  describe  an  ellipsis. 
This  method  of  describing  an  ellipsis  is  exceedingly  useful  in  laying 
out  ground,  where  great  accuracy  is  not  required,  and  where  large 
ellipses  are  to  be  described. 

Figs.  4,  5  and  6,  show  a  simple  method  of  describing  a  polygon 
of  any  number  of  sides,  one  side  being  given.  On  the  extreme  of 
the  given  side,  and  with  a  distance  equal  to  that  side  or  to  any  other 
distance  as  a  radius,  describe  a  semicircle,  and  divide  it  into  as  many 
parts  as  you  intend  to  have  sides  to  your  polygon.  Then  draw  lines 
from  the  centre  through  these  divisions,  always  omitting  the  two 
last,  and  with  the  distance  of  the  given  side  run  the  sides  round  as 
in  fifr.  4.  For  example,  e  d  being  the  given  side,  with  that  distance 
in  your  compasses,  having  one  foot  in  e,  let  the  other  fall  on  a  ; 
then  with  one  foot  in  a,  let  the  other  fall  on  b  ;  and  with  one  on  b, 
let  the  other  fall  on  c,  and  the  same  with  c  to  d,  and  the  sides  are 
completed. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  method  of  finding  a  straight  line  nearly  equal 
to  the  circumference  of  a  given  circle.  Let  F  D  H  E  be  the 
given  circle.  Draw  D  E,  cutting  the  centre  at  G ;  and  from  G, 
perpendicular  to  D  E,  draw  G  F  C.  Divide  G  F  into  four  equal 
parts,  three  of  which  parts  set  up  from  F  to  C  ;  from  C,  draw  C  B, 
cutting  the  circle  at  D  ;  and  from  C  draw  C  A,  cutting  the  circle  at 
E.  Draw  B  A  parallel  to  D  E,  making  a  tangent  with  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  circle  at  H,  and  B  A  will  be  equal  to  one  half  of 
the  circumference  of  the  circle. 


Library 

«r   r*.   SZ+a+a  r!cYll««v 


CT    I   0  K  S      OV     SO   h  IDS. 


PLATE   II. 


4        3        s        l        D        1         2        3        4         43ziDi234 


Fig.  4. 


Fn,    6. 


Fig.  5  f  a 


CONIC    SECTIONS.  H 

Fig.  8  shows  the  method  of  describing  a  segment  of  a  circle  to 
any  given  length  and  height.  A  B  being  the  length,  and  E  D  the 
height,  join  respectively  the  points  A  B,  A  D,  and  A  C,  and  draw 
D  C  parallel  to  A  B,  and  equal  to  A  D.  Put  in  pins  at  A  and  D  ; 
and,  with  a  point  at  the  angle  D,  move  the  triangle  ADC  around, 
until  the  angle  D  arrives  at  A,  and  it  will  describe  the  segment  A  D. 
The  othef  side  of  the  segment  may  be  drawn  in  a  similar  manner. 

Fig.  9  shows  another  method  of  drawing  a  circle  nearly  accurate, 
by  ordinates.  Let  A  B  be  the  length,  and  D  C  the  perpendicular 
height.  Make  B  b  and  A  a  each  equal  and  parallel  to  D  C.  Di- 
vide D  A,  D  B,  B  b  and  A  a,  each  into  a  like  number  of  equal  parts, 
as  here  into  four,  and  draw  lines  from  the  points  1,  2,  3  in  D  B 
and  in  D  A  parallel  to  D  C.  From  C  draw  lines  to  the  points  1, 
2,  3  in  both  B  b  and  A  a  ;  and  through  the  points  where  those  lines 
intersect  the  lines  drawn  from  1,  2,  3  in  D  B  and  D  A,  trace  the 
curve,  which  will  be  the  segment  required. 


CONIC      SECTIONS 


PLATE  II. 
It  is  well  known  to  those,  who  have  a  knowledge  of  Grecian 
architecture,  that  every  Grecian  moulding  is  indebted  to  some  one 
of  the  conic  sections  for  its  beautiful  variety  of  outline  ;  and  that 
that  outline  is  regulated  by  the  particular  section  made,  whether  it 
be  perpendicular  to  the  base,  or  more  or  less  inclined  to  it,  or  parallel 
to  the  sides,  or  whether  the  sides  of  the  cone  be  longer  or  shorter 
than  the  diameter  of  the  base.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  an  end- 
less number  of  different  outlines  can  be  obtained  from  the  conic 


12  CONIC    SECTIONS. 

sections  ;  which  makes  it  expedient  to  lay  down  the  cone  with  seve- 
ral of  its  sections,  and  to  show  the  method  of  applying  them  to  the 
Grecian  moulding. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  line  parallel  to  its  base,  such  a  section  will 
be  a  circle. 

If  a  line  passes  through  the  cone,  intersecting  both  t>,f  its  sides 
and  inclining  more  or  less  to  the  base,  as  a  b,  a  section  thus  made 
will  form  an  ellipsis  or  oval. 

If  a  section  be  made  by  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  base,  as  c  i, 
that  section  will  be  an  hyperbola,  as  h  g  i. 

If  a  section  be  made  by  a  line  passing  parallel  to  one  of  its  sides, 
as  d  k,  the  figure  of  the  section  thus  made  will  be  a  parabola. 

Fig.  1.  On  d  as  a  centre,  describe  the  half  circle  Am/B,  which 
will  be  the  semi-diameter  of  the  cone's  base.  With  a  view  to  illus- 
trate the  subject,  the  lower  extremity  of  the  cone  is  thrown  into  per- 
spective. Draw  d  I,  perpendicular  to  A  B.  On  fig.  2,  make  D  A 
and  D  B  each  equal  to  D  I  fig.  1,  and  make  D  C  equal  to  d  k  in 
fig.  1,  and  perpendicular  to  A  B  in  fig.  2  ;  draw  A  E  and  B  F,  each 
equal  and  parallel  to  D  C  ;  divide  D  A,  D  B,  A  E  and  B  F  each 
into  a  like  number  of  equal  parts  ;  into  four,  for  instance,  as  here. 
Through  the  points  1,  2,  3,  in  both  A  E  and  B  F,  draw  lines  to  the 
point  C  ;  also,  through  the  points  1,  2,  3,  in  D  A  and  D  B,  draw 
lines  parallel  to  D  C,  cutting  the  former  ones  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e  and  f. 
Then  through  those  points,  and  the  points  A  C  and  B,  trace  a  curved 
line,  which  completes  the  section  of  the  parabola. 

Fig.  3  exhibits  the  method  of  drawing  the  hyperbola.  Make 
D  a  equal  to  d  C,  the  height  of  the  cone  fig.  1.  Make  D  A  and 
D  B  each  equal  to  c  m  fig.  1,  and  perpendicular  to  D  a  fig.  2 ; 
make  D  C  equal  to  c  i  fig.  1  ;  make  A  F  and  B  F  each  equal  and 
parallel  to  D   C  ;  join   respectively  the  points  E  F,  A  a  and  B  cr. 


CONIC    SECTIONS.  13 

Divide  D  A,  D  B,  A  E  and  B  F,  each  into  a  like  number  of  equal 
parts  ;  as  here,  into  four.  Through  the  points  1,  2,  3,  in  both  A  E 
and  B  E,  draw  lines  to  the  point  C  ;  also  through  the  points  1,  2,  3, 
in  D  A  and  D  B,  draw  lines  cutting  the  former  ones,  and  which 
would,  if  produced,  meet  in  a  point  at  a.  Then,  through  A,  C,  B, 
and  the  p6ints  of  intersection,  trace  a  curve  line,  which  will  be  the 
hyperbola  required. 

Fig.  6  exhibits  the  method  of  drawing  the  section  a  b.     On  fig.  1, 
which  is  taken  lower  down  the  cone  with  a  view  of  representing  the 
lines  more  clearly,  let  A  B  C  be  the  outline,  and  B  d  C  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  cone.     Produce  F  G  to  E,  there  cutting  A  E,  which 
is  parallel  to  B  C  ;  also  produce  G  F  to  D,  cutting  the  base  line  at 
D.     Divide   the  semi-diameter   of  the   cone    into  eight  parts,   and 
through  these  divisions  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  B  C,  and  cutting 
B  C  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7  ;  through  these  points  draw  lines  meeting 
in  a  point  at  A.  Draw  d  D  perpendicular  to  D  E,  and  equal  to  B  4 ; 
from  a,  b,  c  and  d,  draw  lines  parallel  to  D  C,  cutting  D  d  at  e,  f,  g 
and  d  ;  draw  D  d  No.  2  perpendicular  to  G  D,  and  equal  toD<f  No. 
1.     Make  D  e,ef,fg  and  g  d,  in  No.  2,  each  equal  to  the  corres- 
ponding letters  in  No.  1  ;  then  draw  lines  from  the  point  E,  cutting 
D  d  No.  2  at  e,  f,  g  and  d.     From  the  points  h,  i,  k,  p,  v,  u  and  y, 
perpendicular  to  D  E,  draw  lines  cutting  e  E  at  b  t,  f  E  at  m  c,  g 
E  at  n  r,  and  d  E  at  o.     Through  these  points,  and  through  F  and 
G,  trace  the  curve  line  FbmnorctG,  which  is  one  half  of  the 
section  required. 

As  three  different  sections  of  the  cone  have  now  been  described, 
and  as  the  principal  object  of  their  description  was  to  show  their 
application  to  the  Grecian  mouldings,  I  now  proceed  to  apply  them 
to  that  object.  The  lines  within  A  D  B  and  E  C  F,  in  fig.  4,  are 
in  all  respects  similar,  and  like  those  within  the  corresponding 
letters  fig.  2.  4 


14  GRECIAN    MOULDINGS. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  inspection  of  fig.  4,  that  the  outline  of  the 
echinus  there  described  from  A  to  C  is  exactly  that  of  a  parabola ; 
and  that  from  C  to  b,  where  the  quirk  joins  the  fillet,  is  another  and 
shorter  curve.  In  determining  the  size  and  outline  of  the  quirk,' 
and  also  the  projection  of  the  fillet  beyond  that  of  the  extreme  part 
of  the  moulding,  judgment  is  to  be  exercised.  If  ihe  quirk  is  very 
small,  it  does  not  mark  the  line  of  separation  between  the  echinus 
and  fillet  sufficiently  strong  ;  and  on  the  contrary,  ifit  be  too  large, 
it  then  assumes  too  much  the  appearance  of  principal,  when  it  ought 
to  be  subordinate. 

As  the  hyperbola  fig.  3  is  transferred  to  fig.  5,  it  is  evident  that 
the  outline  of  the  moulding  therein  exhibited  is  that  of  the  hyperbola, 
with  the  exception  of  the  quirk,  which  is,  as  in  fig.  4,  of  another  and 
a  shorter  curve. 


GRECIAN      MOULDINGS 


PLATE   III. 

A  and  B  are  two  mouldings  differing  in  their  projection  only.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  principle  upon  which  they  are  drawn  is  that  of 
the  parabola,  as  exhibited  in  Plate  2,  fig.  4.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  the  projection  of  the  moulding  must  be  divided  into  the  same 
number  of  equal  parts  as  the  height,  be  the  difference  in  height  and 
projection  ever  so  great. 

The  principle  of  the  two  mouldings  C  and  D  is  that  of  the  hyper- 
bola, as  exhibited  in  fig.  3,  Plate  2.  The  lines  drawn  from  the  divi- 
sions on  the  line  of  height  would,  if  produced,  meet  in  a  point.  In 
order  to  determine  at  what  distance  this   point  shall  be  from  the 


MCIAH      MOFi»ll©§. 


PJLATJE   HI. 


A 

") 

N 

/ 

\a    J       LJ 

3      4 

B 

•k 

A 

t» 

ic 

^ 

^-^^ 

a        i            2          3 

4 

c 

c\ 

yf 

~/ 

a  i     2      3      4 

D 

Cd 

■c 

ki 

a 

1           z 

3           4 

E 

*. 
U 

J 

H 

/ 

,. 

/ 

a    ' 

F 

■*-, 

t*3 

1 

i 

J 

4 

N 

kl 

(1 

G 

u 

N 

4    3    -'    1 

a 

s^ 

l    J    3    4 

ft 

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f 


GRECIAN    MOULDINGS.  15 

extreme  projection  of  the  moulding,  we  must  consider  what  shape 
the  outline  of  the  moulding  is  to  assume.  If  it  is  to  approach  very 
nearly  to  a  straight  line,  then  the  centre  must  not  be  very  distant 
from  the  moulding  ;  but  should  it  be  desired  to  have  the  outline  of  a 
shorter  curve  than  C  or  D,  then  the  centre  must  be  farther  removed 
from  the  extreme  projection  of  the  moulding. 

The  only  difference  between  the  drawing  of  the  mouldings  E  and 
F,  and  that  of  the  mouldings  C  and  D,  is  that  the  line  a  4  would,  if 
produced,  meet  in  the  same  point  with  those  cutting  a  F  at  1,  2,  3 
and  4  ;  whereas  the  lines  a  4  in  C  and  D  are  both  parallel  with  the 
moulding.  It  is  therefore  apparent,  that  by  this  deviation  the  outline 
approaches  somewhat  nearer  to  a  straight  line,  and  that  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  moulding  is  considerably  reduced  in  height. 

G  exhibits  a  method  of  describing  the  cimatium  on  the  principle 
of  the  parabola.  It  will  be  understood  by  examining  the  Plate,  with- 
out further  explanation.  The  turning  in  of  the  upper,  and  out  of 
the  lower  edge,  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  student. 

To  draw  the  cima-recta  H.  Its  projection  a  d,  and  its  height  dc, 
being  given,  bisect  ad  at  g,  and  draw  g  h  parallel  to  a  b  ;  bisect 
a  b  at  e,  and  draw  ef,  cutting  g  h  at  i.  Divide  i  g,  i  h,  if,  and  i  e, 
each  into  a  like  number  of  equal  parts,  and  from  b  draw  lines  cut- 
ting i  e  at  1,  2  and  3.  From  a  draw  lines  passing  through  those 
last  drawn,  and  cutting  i  g  at  1,  2  and  3.  Then  trace  the  curve 
through  the  points  of  intersection  of  those  lines,  and  it  will  finish  the 
lower  half  of  the  moulding.  The  upper  half,  being  drawn  in  the 
same  way,  will  not  require  further  explanation.  By  this  method, 
the  outline  of  the  cima-recta  may  be  correctly  drawn,  in  imitation 
of  the  Grecian  practice,  to  any  height  and  projection.  It  is  however 
to  be  remembered,  that  the  projection  should  not  in  any  case  exceed 
the  height. 


16  ROMAN    MOULDINGS. 

The  several  different  sections  of  the  cone,  with  their  application 
to  the  outline  of  the  Grecian  mouldings,  have,  I  trust,  been  so  fully 
explained,  as  to  enable  the  student  to  comprehend  how  great  a 
variety  of  outline  may  be  obtained  from  them.  When  the  principles, 
on  which  they  are  drawn,  are  fully  understood,  and  the  student  has 
accustomed  his  eye  to  distinguish  the  peculiar  outline  of  each  differ- 
ent section,  he  may  in  practice,  when  the  size  and  contour  of  a 
moulding  is  determined,  cut  a  thin  piece  of  wood  by  that  same  eye 
to  the  exact  shape  wanted,  and  by  this  mark  the  outline. 


ROMAN      MOULDINGS 


PLATE   IV. 

Op  these  mouldings  but  little  need  be  said  in  relation  to  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  they  are  drawn,  the  outline  of  each  being  some  part 
of  a  circle. 

The  astrigal,  or  bead,  is  one  half  of  a  circle. 

The  ovolo  and  cavetto  are  each  one  quarter  of  a  circle.  Their 
projection  and  height  are  equal. 

To  draw  the  cima-recta,  divide  the  line  a  b  into  eight  equal  parts. 
With  three  of  these  parts  as  a  radius,  and  on  a  and  4,  make  the 
intersection  c  ;  on  c,  describe  a  4  ;  on  4  and  b,  make  the  intersec- 
tion d ;  on  d,  draw  4  6 ;  which  completes  the  outline  of  the  cima- 
recta. 

To  draw  the  cima-reversa,  divide  a  b  into  ten  equal  parts.  With 
four  of  these  as  a  radius,  and  on  a  and  e,  make  the  intersection  ; 
on  c  draw  a  e,  on  e  and  b  make  the  intersection  d,  and  on  d  draw 
e  b. 


ROMAN     MOHJLBIIG§ 


Astrigal 


Ovoio 


Torws 


Ca»etto 


Scotia 


fvn„i  Recta      -^—^      "J 


Scotia 


b 

&T 

V  / 
V  / 

Cyma,JRarersa 

/A 

1    ** 

*e 

a 

MOULDINGS    AND    THEIR    APPENDAGES.  17 

The  torus  is,  like  the  bead,  a  half  circle,  which  finishes  with  a 
fillet  above  and  a  plinth  below. 

To  draw  the  scotia  A,  divide  its  height  into  seven  equal  parts,  and 
make  a  o  equal  to  three  of  them  and  perpendicular  to  the  fillet. 
Make  the  fillet  d  project  three  parts  beyond  the  fillet  a ;  make  d  b 
parallel  to  a  o,  and  equal  to  the  height  of  the  scotia.  From  b,  cut- 
ting a  o  at  o,  draw  be;  on  o,  with  the  distance  o  a,  describe  the 
curve  a  c,  and  on  b,  with  the  distance  b  c,  or  b  d,  describe  c  d. 

To  draw  the  scotia  B,  divide  its  height  into  three  equal  parts. 
Project  the  fillet  c  one  part  more  than  the  fillet  3.  On  2,  with  the 
distance  2,  3,  describe  the  quadrant  3  a  ;  with  b  c  or  b  a,  and  on  b, 
describe  the  quadrant  a  c. 

To  draw  the  scape  of  a  column,  divide  its  projection  into  five 
parts.  With  these  five  parts,  and  one  more  as  a  radius,  from  a  and 
b  make  the  intersection  c,  and  on  c  describe  the  scape  a  b. 


MOULDINGS    AND     THEIR    APPENDAGES 


Mouldings,  judiciously  intermixed  with  plain  surfaces,  such  as 
fillets,  facies,  coronas,  &c,  are  the  elements  to  which  architecture 
is  indebted  for  its  most  splendid  productions.  It  is  on  the  size, 
shape  and  fitness  of  these  details,  together  with  that  of  the  plain 
surfaces  which  serve  to  divide  and  enrich  them,  that  the  beauty  or 
deformity  of  every  production,  composed  of  these  elements,  depends. 

Any  one,  who  is  desirous  of  making  himself  a  judge  of  these 
details,  must  study  the  outline  separately  and  critically,  when  affected 
by  shadow,  and  when  by  reflecting  light.  After  he  has  accustomed 
his  eye  to  discern  and  retain  the  beauties  and  fitness  of  each  for 

5 


18  REMARKS    ON    MOULDINGS. 

all  the  different  situations  in  which  he  may  wish  to  employ  them, 
he  will  then  as  faithfully  study  the  size,  shape  and  fitness  of  all 
plain  surfaces  by  which  the  mouldings  may  be  separated  and  adorn- 
ed. After  this,  he  must  study  them  collectively,  by  frequently  draw- 
ing and  intermixing  their  details ;  and  he  will  thus  be  able  to  discern 
the  good  and  bad  effects  of  his  composition,  and  improve  his  taste. 
Every  composition  is  not  only  dependent  upon  the  outline  of  its 
details  ;  but  upon  the  proportion  which  the  size  of  one  bears  to  that 
of  another  and  to  the  whole,  and  upon  its  adaptation  to  its  intended 
place. 


REMARKS      ON      MOULDINGS 


The  ovolo,  when  used  as  a  crown  moulding,  was  generally  made 
by  the  Greeks  to  project  about  three-fourths  of  its  height,  and  to 
project  to  a  distance  about  equal  to  its  height,  when  used  in  the 
capital  of  the  Doric  column.  The  great  variety  of  outline,  and  the 
strong  shadow  produced  by  the  quirk  of  its  upper  edge,  render  this 
moulding,  when  possessing  the  Grecian  form,  equally  applicable  to 
a  large  or  small  projection  ;  so  that  it  can  be  used  in  a  great  variety 
of  situations,  with  nearly  equal  success.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
flat  surfaces  ;  such  as  architraves,  doors,  panels,  &c.  It  is  differ- 
ent, however,  with  the  Roman  ovolo,  whose  projection  cannot  with 
propriety  be  made  much  greater  or  less  than  its  height  ;  for  should 
it  project  much  more,  or  much  less,  the  outline  would  then  become 
less  than  a  quarter  of  a  circle,  which  defect  limits  the  application 
of  this  moulding,  compared  with  that  of  the  Grecian,  to  a  very  few 
situations. 


REMARKS    ON    MOULDINGS.  19 

The  cavetto,  in  its  outline,  did  not  differ  very  essentially  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  practice.  It  was  employed  often,  by  the  Ro- 
mans, as  a  crowning  moulding  in  their  cornices,  but  never  by  the 
Greeks.  Its  outline  may  often  be  improved  by  adopting  some  part 
of  the  ellipsis  for  its  curve. 

The  cymatium,  as  practised  by  the  Greeks,  was  generally  less  in 
projection  than  in  height.  Its  outline  was  always  some  part  of  a 
conic  section  ;  so  that  it  appeared  equally  beautiful,  whether  the 
projection  was  great  or  small.  When  the  moulding  is  very  flat,  it 
is  well  to  cause  the  lower  edge  to  project  forwards  and  the  upper 
edge  to  recede.  The  light  and  shadow  are  thus  so  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  moulding,  as  to  cause  a  marked  line  of  separation 
from  the  adjoining  flat  surfaces. 

The  cymatium,  as  practised  by  the  Romans,  was  generally  com- 
posed of  parts  of  a  circle,  the  outline  of  which  at  the  two  extremi- 
ties of  the  moulding  ended  perpendicularly  to  the  horizon.  The 
light  and  shadow  were  therefore  very  faint  at  the  edges,  and  its 
variation  from  a  flat  surface  hardly  distinguishable.  The  cymatium 
was  generally  employed  by  the  Romans  to  separate  the  crown 
moulding  from  the  corona,  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite 
orders,  but  seldom  or  never  used  for  that  purpose  by  the  Greeks. 

The  cima-recta  was  always  the  finishing,  or  crown  moulding  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders,  as  practised  by  the  Grecians.  It 
had  a  great  height  and  small  projection  in  the  best  examples.  Its 
outline  was  made  to  imitate  some  one  of  the  conic  sections,  and  pro- 
duced a  shadow  less  abrupt  and  hard  than  the  Roman,  which  was 
always  composed  of  parts  of  a  circle. 


20 


THE    ORDERS     OF     ARCHITECTURE. 


Each  of  these  orders  presents  a  distinct  style  or  mode  of  building, 
having  a  character  peculiar  to  itself.  The  orders  are  the  alphabet  of 
the  art ;  and  to  them  and  their  elements,  altered,  varied  and  arranged 
in  a  thousand  different  ways,  we  are  to  look  for  the  most  splendid 
productions  of  architecture.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  these  orders, 
and  of  all  their  constituent  parts,  is  therefore  necessary  for  the 
composition  of  any  architectural  subject. 

Of  these  orders,  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  are  of  Grecian 
origin.  They  exhibit  three  distinct  and  essential  qualities  in  archi- 
tecture ;  strength,  grace,  and  richness. 

The  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders  are  of  Roman  origin.  The 
former  appears  to  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting 
strength  and  rustic  simplicity,  while  elegance  and  profusion  appear 
to  have  been  the  object  of  the  latter. 

By  whom  these  orders  were  first  invented,  or  at  what  time  their 
improvement  was  advanced  to  the  state  in  which  they  are  to  be 
found  in  the  structures  and  fragments  of  antiquity,  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  We  know  nothing  of  their  origin  except  what  is 
related  to  us  by  Vitruvius,  a  writer  whose  correctness  in  many 
parts  is  much  questioned.  He  is  the  only  author  upon  Architecture 
of  the  Augustan  age,  or  for  many  ages  afterward,  whose  works 
have  come  down  to  us.  His  writings  are  justly  held  in  great  esti- 
mation. It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  his  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  orders  has  more  the  air  of  a  fable  than  of  an  historical 
fact.  Vitruvius  informs  us  that  "  Dorus,  the  son  of  Helen,  and  the 
nymph  Opticus,  who  governed  Achaia  and  the  whole  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, in  some  period  of  his  reign,  dedicated  a  temple  to  Juno 


THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  21 

in  the  ancient  city  of  Argos.  The  order  of  architecture  employed 
in  this  sacred  edifice,  which  from  its  founder  was  termed  Doric,  was 
afterward  adopted  by  the  cities  of  Achaia  ;  although  no  certain 
principles  had  been  yet  established  by  which  its  proportions  might 
be  regulated.  In  a  subsequent  era,  the  Athenians,  in  conformity 
with  the  response  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  by  the  general  consent  of 
the  States  of  Greece,  sent  thirteen  colonies  into  Asia,  each  con- 
ducted by  an  experienced  leader,  and  invested  Ion,  son  of  Xuthus 
and  Creusa,  whom  Apollo  by  his  priestess  acknowledged  as  his 
offspring,  with  the  supreme  command.  He  led  them  into  Asia,  and 
possessed  himself  of  the  territories  of  the  Carians,  in  which  he 
founded  the  cities  of  Ephesus,  Miletus  and  Myus  ;  the  latter  of 
which  being  destroyed  by  an  inundation,  its  rites  and  privileges  were 
transferred  by  the  Ionians  to  the  Milesians,  likewise  Priene,  Samos, 
Yeos,  Colaphon,  Chios,  Erythrse,  Phocsea,  Clazomense,  Lebedus 
and  Melite.  The  last  was  destroyed  in  the  war,  which  was  under- 
taken by  the  general  concurrence  of  the  other  cities  to  punish  the 
arrogance  of  its  inhabitants  ;  and  in  its  place  Smyrna  was  afterwards 
admitted  among  the  confederated  States,  through  the  mediation  of 
Attalus  and  Arsinoe. 

"  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Carians  and  the  Leleges,  the  new 
acquisition  was  called  Ionia,  from  the  name  of  the  chief  of  the 
colonists  ;  and  temples  were  erected  to  the  deities  of  the  Grecian 
mythology,  the  order  of  architecture  of  which  was  similar  to  that 
observed  in  the  sacred  buildings  of  Achaia,  and  called  the  Doric, 
from  having  originated  in  the  Dorian  cities.  The  Temple  of  Apollo 
Panionius  was  the  first  they  constructed  in  this  manner.  Desirous 
of  adorning  this  temple  with  columns,  but  unpracticed  in  the  rules 
of  proportion,  they  were  led  to  consider  the  proportions  of  the  human 
frame  ;  expecting  principles  to  result  from  them,  by  the  adoption  of 

6 


22  THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

which  the  great  objects  of  strength  and  beauty  would  be  obtained. 
Finding  that  the  foot  was  a  sixth  part  of  the  height  of  the  whole 
stature,  they  instituted  the  same  proportions  in  their  columns, 
whose  height,  including  the  capital,  they  made  equal  to  six  times 
the  diameter  of  the  shaft  at  the  base.  Thus  the  Doric  column, 
formed  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  human  figure,  and 
emblematical  of  manly  strength  and  beauty,  was  first  introduced 
in  the  temples  of  Ionia.  In  later  times,  however,  when  it  was  in 
contemplation  to  consecrate  a  temple  to  Diana,  they  sought  to 
introduce  a  new  order  of  columns  by  giving  to  them  the  propor- 
tions of  the  female  form  ;  and  that  they  might  be  emblematical 
of  feminine  delicacy,  the  height  of  the  columns  was  made  eight 
times  the  lower  diameter.  Bases  were  also  given  to  them  in  imi- 
tation of  sandals,  and  volutes  were  sculptured  in  allusion  to  the 
ringlets  which  fell  down  on  either  side  of  the  face.  The  cymatia 
and  encarpi  in  front  were  intended  to  resemble  the  hair  as  it  was 
then  worn,  and  the  shaft  was  channelled  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
bear  some  resemblance  to  the  folds  of  the  matronly  garment. 

"  Thus  the  invention  of  two  different  orders  arose  ;  one  exhibiting 
the  boldness  and  simplicity  of  the  masculine  figure,  and  the  other 
the  more  finished  form  of  a  woman,  attired  and  richly  decorated. 
Later  ages,  however,  advancing  in  refinement  and  judgment,  sought 
to  give  greater  beauties  to  both  by  making  the  Doric  column  seven 
times  its  diameter  at  the  base  of  the  shaft,  and  the  Ionic  nine  times 
its  lower  diameter.  The  order,  whose  use  was  adopted  first  by  the 
Ionian  colonies,  was  called  the  Ionic. 

"  The  third  order,  which  is  named  Corinthian,  derives  its  sym- 
metry from  an  intention  to  make  the  form  of  the  column  accord 
with  the  more  delicate  proportions  of  the  maiden  figure  ;  for  at  that 
early  period  of  life,  the  limbs  are  less  robust,  and  the  figure  admits 


THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  23 

of  a  greater  display  of  ornament.  The  invention  of  the  capital  is 
said  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  following  circumstance.  A  virgin  of 
Corinth,  just  as  she  had  attained  to  a  marriageable  age,  was  attack- 
ed by  a  disorder  whose  effects  proved  fatal.  After  her  interment, 
the  vases,  the  objects  of  her  admiration  when  alive,  were  collected 
by  her  nurse  and  deposited  in  a  basket,  which  she  placed  upon  her 
grave,. after  covering  it  with  a  tile  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 
The  basket  was  accidentally  placed  over  the  roots  of  an  acanthus. 
The  natural  growth  of  the  plant  being  impeded  by  the  pressure  upon 
it,  the  middle  leaf  and  the  cauliculi  appeared  in  the  spring  around 
the  bottom  of  the  basket.  The  cauliculi,  attaching  themselves  to 
the  external  surface,  grew  upwards,  until  their  progress  was  arrest- 
ed by  the  angles  of  the  tile  projecting  over  the  basket,  which  caused 
them  to  incline  forward  and  assume  a  spiral  form.  At  this  stage  of 
its  growth,  Callimachus,  who,  from  his  great  genius  and  talent  for 
sculpture,  was  called  Catatechnos  by  the  Athenians,  chancing  to 
pass  by  the  spot  observed  the  basket  and  the  beauty  of  the  young 
foliage  around  it.  Pleased  with  its  novel  and  fanciful  appearance, 
he  adopted  it  in  the  columns  which  he  afterwards  employed  in  the 
edifices  of  Corinth  ;  having  first  instituted  laws  for  the  proportions 
of  the  order,  which  was  thence  termed  Corinthian." 

An  order  of  architecture  consists  of  one  or  more  columns,  stand- 
ing perpendicularly  to  the  horizon,  and  supporting  an  entablature, 
which  extends  from  column  to  column. 

Each  order  is  composed  of  two  principal  divisions,  the  column 
and  the  entablature  ;  which  are  respectively  subdivided  into  three 
parts  :  the  column,  into  the  base,  the  capital  and  the  shaft ;  and  the 
entablature,  into  the  architrave,  the  frieze  and  the  cornice. 

The  base  is  the  lowest  extremity  of  the  column.     It  is  generally 


24  THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

thirty  minutes  in  height,  and  consists  of  a  plinth,  whose  base  line 
forms  a  square  of  four  equal  sides,  projecting  on  each  side  of  the 
column  about  ten  minutes,  above  which  is  a  series  of  mouldings, 
projecting  equally  all  around,  and  encircling  the  shaft  of  the 
column. 

The  shaft  of  a  column  is  in  shape  a  frustum  of  a  cone.  It  is  that 
plain  or  fluted  part,  which  is  situated  between  the  base  and  the 
capital.  In  some  examples  it  is  plain,  in  others  fluted  ;  and  is 
differently  formed  and  variously  divided  in  the  different  orders. 
The  diameter  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  shaft  is  taken  as  the  unit 
of  measure.  It  is  divided  into  sixty  equal  parts,  each  part  being 
one  minute.  This  scale  of  diameter  and  minutes  is  used  by  archi- 
tects as  an  universal  standard  for  all  the  measures  that  regulate 
and  determine  the  heights  and  projections.  Unlike  the  measure  of 
feet  and  inches,  it  is  as  various  as  the  diameter  of  columns. 

The  capital  is  the  member  which  crowns  and  adorns  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  column,  and  is  usually  made  the  characteristic  of 
the  order.  It  is  both  ornamental  and  useful ;  for,  while  it  decorates 
the  upper  end  of  the  column,  it  serves  to  prevent  the  angle  from 
fracture  and  the  rain  from  penetrating  the  shaft.  Capitals  are  clas- 
sified according  to  the  order  they  serve  to  adorn.  The  Tuscan 
capital  is  distinguished  by  rustic  plainness  ;  the  Doric,  by  grave 
simplicity  ;  the  Ionic,  by  graceful  elegance  ;  and  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite,  by  gorgeous  richness. 

The  architrave  is  the  lowest  division  of  the  entablature.  It  is 
divided  into  one  or  more  fascia,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
order  to  which  it  belongs,  and  crowned  with  a  single  or  compound 
moulding.  The  Doric  architrave  differs  from  all  the  others,  having 
only  one  fascia,  which  is  capped  with  a  band  of  rectangular  form, 
and  ornamented  with  six  conical  drops  hanging  from  the  lower 
extremity  of  each  triglyph. 


Library 
N.  C.  State  Collee* 


THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  05 

The  frieze  is  that  part  of  the  entablature  which  divides  the 
architrave  from  the  cornice.  In  the  Tuscan  order,  it  is  always 
left  plain,  the  frieze  of  that  order  not  admitting  of  any  ornament 
whatever.  The  Doric  frieze  is  peculiar.  It  is  ornamented  with 
triglyphs,  and  the  metopes  are  sometimes  embellished  with  ox  skulls 
or  historical  representations.  The  Doric  frieze  is  also,  to  common 
observers,  the  distinguishing  part  of  the  order.  In  other  orders  the 
frieze  is  sometimes  ornamented,  but  oftener  plain. 

The  cornice  is  an  assemblage  of  mouldings,  crowning  and  finish- 
ing the  entablature.  Each  order  has  a  peculiar  cornice.  Every 
cornice  is  composed  of  three  parts  ;  the  bed  mould,  the  corona,  and 
the  crowning  moulding.  The  details  of  the  Tuscan  cornice  are 
few,  bold  and  strongly  marked  ;  of  the  Doric,  massive  and  simple, 
the  mutule  being  a  distinguished  feature  in  that  order.  The  ele- 
ments of  the  Ionic  cornice  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  the 
Tuscan  or  Doric.  The  dentil,  which  properly  belongs  to  it,  is 
sometimes  omitted  for  the  modillion.  At  other  times,  the  dentil  and 
modillion  arc  both  left  out,  and  a  plain  bed  mould  used  in  their 
stead. 

The  Corinthian  and  Composite  cornices  are  embellished  with 
both  dentils  and  modillions,  and  are  often  otherwise  decorated  with 
a  profusion  of  elegant  ornaments. 

The  Tuscan  order  consists  of  a  few  prominent  parts.  Its  charac- 
ter is  simple  grandeur,  impressing  the  beholder  at  first  sight  with 
the  conviction  that  its  strength  is  adequate  to  the  support  of  any 
weight  it  may  be  employed  to  sustain.  It  may  be  used  in  all  situa- 
tions, where  strength  and  simplicity  is  desired,  or  expense  is  to  be 
avoided. 

Of  the  Doric  order  we  have  numerous  ancient  examples  now  in 
existence,  many  of  which  have  been  accurately  measured.  It  is 
•    7 


26  THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

fortunate  for  us  that  we  are  not  under  the  necessity  of  depending 
wholly  upon  the  account  of  Vitruvius  for  the  proportions  of  this 
order,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tuscan.  As  the  description  of  Vitru- 
vius does  not  correspond  with  the  examples  now  to  be  seen,  it  is 
probable  that  he  has  confounded  the  measures  of  the  original  Doric 
with  those  of  the  Roman  Doric  as  practised  in  his  time. 

The  Grecian  architects,  in  their  practice  of  this  order,  were  care- 
ful to  preserve  in  it  the  severe  Doric  character.  It  does  not  appear, 
however,  that  they  were  governed  by  any  determinate  rule  in  other 
respects.  Indeed,  they  used  the  order  with  great  latitude,  some- 
times making  the  columns  only  four  diameters  four  minutes  in 
height,  and  at  others  six  diameters  thirty-two  minutes,  differing  as 
widely  in  the  details.  The  Romans  increased  the  height  of  the 
column  to  seven  and  a  half  or  eight  diameters,  which  example  is 
worthy  of  imitation,  especially  in  private  buildings,  to  which  this 
proportion  is  certainly  better  adapted  than  the  Grecian.  This  order 
is  likewise  plain  and  simple,  and  can  be  employed  whenever  strength 
and  simplicity  is  desired. 

The  Ionic  order  stands  second  in  the  Grecian,  and  third  in  the 
Roman  system  of  the  orders.  In  both  Greece  and  Rome  many 
ancient  examples  have  been  discovered  which  have  been  accurately 
measured  and  transmitted  to  us.  We  have  therefore  an  opportunity 
of  critically  examining  all  the  various  examples,  and  of  deliberately 
deciding  what  parts  it  will  be  wise  to  imitate  and  what  to  reject. 

It  is  however  to  be  remembered,  that  all  the  ancient  Grecian  exam- 
ples within  our  knowledge  were  employed  to  adorn  edifices  erected 
for  public  purposes,  which  were  mostly  of  an  enormous  size  and  of 
such  a  construction  as  to  require  columns  very  large  and  thickly 
set.  It  will  therefore  be  highly  proper  in  us  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  uses  to  which  these  elegant  temples  were  applied,  their 


THE    ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  27 

size,  their  construction  and  their  decorations,  and  compare  them 
with  our  times,  our  customs  and  our  wants,  and  then  to  imitate,  in 
the  whole  or  in  part,  any  of  these  examples,  with  such  alterations 
and  adaptations  as  will  render'them  conformable  to  our  purposes. 

This  order  was  borrowed  of  the  Grecians  by  the  Romans,  in 
whose  hands  it  certainly  lost  much  of  its  original  character.  Al- 
though in  the  general  proportions  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  exam- 
ples, the  difference  is  not  so  striking  as  between  the  Doric  examples, 
yet  in  their  details  the  difference  is  very  apparent.  The  examples 
most  worthy  of  imitation  are  those  of  Grecian  origin,  except  in  a 
few  of  the  details,  where  the  Roman  are  preferable.  This  subject 
will  be  more  fully  treated  of  in  the  description  of  the  Ionic  order. 

As  the  elements  of  this  order  are  of  a  more  delicate  character 
than  any  of  the  above-mentioned,  and  as  it  stands  in  an  equipoise 
between  the  massive  proportions  of  the  Doric  and  the  original 
delicacy  of  the  Corinthian,  it  may  be  employed  wherever  graceful 
elegance  is  desired. 

The  Corinthian  order  stands  third  in  the  Grecian,  and  fourth  in 
the  Roman  system.  In  Greece  there  are  a  few,  and  in  Rome 
many  fine  examples  of  this  splendid  order,  which  have  been  accu- 
rately measured.  It  is  of  Grecian  origin,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Ionic,  was  borrowed  of  its  original  proprietors  by  the  Romans, 
though  it  did  not,  like  the  latter,  degenerate  in  their  hands.  It  will, 
I  trust,  be  readily  admitted  that  the  Roman  examples  of  the  Corin- 
thian order  are  as  much  superior  to  the  Grecian,  as  the  Grecian 
examples  of  the  Ionic  are  to  the  Roman. 

"  This  order,"  says  Sir  William  Chambers,  "  is  suitable  and 
proper  for  buildings  where  elegance,  gaiety  and  magnificence  are 
required.  The  ancients  employed  it  in  temples  dedicated  to  Venus, 
to  Flora,  to  Proserpine  and  the   nymphs  of  fountains,  because  the 


28  THE    ORDERS    OP    ARCHITECTURE. 

flowers,  foliage  and  volutes  with  which  it  is  adorned,  seemed  well 
adapted  to  the  delicacy  of  such  deities.  Being  the  most  splendid 
of  the  five  orders,  it  is  also  extremely  proper  for  the  decorations  of 
palaces,  public  squares,  or  galleries,  and  arcades  surrounding  them  ; 
for  churches  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  or  to  the  Virgin  Saints  ; 
and,  on  account  of  its  rich,  gay  and  graceful  appearance,  it  may 
with  singular  propriety  be  used  in  theatres,  in  banqueting,  and  in  all 
places  consecrated  to  festive  mirth  or  convivial  recreations." 

The  Roman  Composite  order.  Many  fine  examples  of  this  order 
have  been  discovered  in  its  native  city,  Rome,  where  it  was  held  in 
greater  estimation  than  it  has  ever  been  elsewhere.  It  was  gene- 
rally employed  in  their  triumphal  arches.  The  elements  are  nearly 
all  borrowed  from  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders.  The  base,  the 
shaft,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  capital,  are  Corinthian  ;  the  upper 
part,  Ionic  ;  the  architrave,  often  a  mixture  of  the  Ionic  and  the 
Corinthian.  The  frieze  is  splendidly  ornamented.  The  cornice  is 
mostly  Corinthian.  The  modillion  is  peculiar  to  this  order,  and  has 
never  to  my  knowledge  been  used  in  any  other.  It  is  composed  of 
a  large  block,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  two  fascia  and  a  crown- 
ing moulding. 

Some  writers  on  architecture  deny  this  composition  the  rank  and 
name  of  an  order  ;  and  indeed  the  objection  is  made  with  more 
propriety  than  a  similar  one  against  the  Tuscan  order.  I  do  not 
see,  however,  that  we  gain  any  particular  advantage  by  depriving 
this  ancient  composition  of  a  name  and  rank  which  it  has  held  for 
many  centuries.  This,  in  fact,  is  with  us  the  only  honor  paid  it,  as 
we  seldom  or  never  employ  it  in  any  of  our  structures. 


SWaSJlSY 


PLATE    V 


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29 


THE    TUSCAN    ORDER. 


PLATE   V. 
The  Tuscan  order  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Tuscany,  before  the  Romans  had  any  intercourse  with  the 
Greeks,  or  had  become  acquainted  with  the;r  arts  and  sciences.     It 
is  to  be  lamented  that  no  regular  example  of  this  order  has  been 
discovered  among  the  remains  of  antiquity.     An  example  of  Vitru- 
vius,  with  his  explanation,  is  the  only  source  from  whence  we  can 
derive  information  upon  this  subject ;  and  this,  taken  as  a  whole,  is 
not  worthy  of  our  imitation.     It  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct 
parts,  the  good  and  the  bad,  or  the   column  and  the  entablature. 
The  column  is  the  good  part,  and  has  been  pretty  generally  imitated 
by  all  the  modern  architects  ;  the  entablature  is  the  bad  part,  and 
has  been  as  generally  rejected.     Some  architects  indeed  have  pre- 
tended to  admire  the  entablature  ;  but  they  have  shown  more  wisdom 
in  practice,  by  rejecting  it  in  most  of  their  structures.     The  cornice 
projects  one  fourth  of  the  entire   height  of  the  column,   and  has 
neither  bed-mould  nor  corona.     It  consists  of  a  cima-recta  and  its 
two  fillets,  and  is  apparently  supported  by  a  few  straggling,  dispro- 
portionate canti-leaves,  with  the  cimatium  of  the   corona  wrought 
across  the  end  of  each,  and  placed  so  as  to  form  the  Ionic  crown 
moulding  against  each  of  the  canti-leaves,  and  the  Tuscan  crown 
mouldings  between  them.     Trajan's  column,   at  Rome,  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  of  this  order.     This  column  is  nearly  eight  diameters 
in  height,  having  a  base  nearly  a  copy  of  that  left  us  by  Vitruvius  ; 
but  its  capital  and  its  general  proportions  partake  strongly  of  the 
Roman  Doric  character. 

8 


30  THE    TUSCAN    ORDER. 

Some  architects  are  unwilling  to  allow  this  column  and  entabla- 
ture the  honor  of  being  ranked  as  one  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 
Say  they,  "  It  is  nothing  more  than  the  Doric  deprived  of  the 
mutules  and  triglyphs,  and  a  diameter  or  two  added  to  the  height 
of  the  column."  I  cannot  perceive  the  justness  of  these  remarks. 
If  any  one  of  the  orders  is  to  be  altered  into  the  Tuscan,  the  Ionic* 
would  certainly  be  more  suitable  for  that  purpose  than  the  Doric. 
Change  its  capital  and  base  for  those  of  the  Tuscan,  leave  off  the 
flutings  on  the  shaft  of  the  column,  and  deprive  it  of  a  diameter  or 
two  in  height,  and  the  change  is  complete. 

In  the  examples  of  this  order,  as  here  exhibited,  the  column  is 
seven  diameters  in  height,  including  the  capital.  This  seems  to 
have  been  the  universal  standard  of  its  height,  from  the  time  of 
Vitruvius  down  to  the  present.  Nevertheless,  during  a  long  course 
of  practice,  it  is  probable  that  in  half  of  the  instances,  where  I  have 
had  occasion  to  draw  either  of  the  orders,  I  have  found  the  estab- 
lished proportions  ill  suited  to  my  purpose.  Many  circumstances 
render  different  proportions  both  proper  and  necessary.  The  pro- 
portions in  fact  depend  upon  the  judgment.  He  who  takes  the 
most  comprehensive  view  of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and 
governs  his  judgment  by  the  simple  and  undeviating  rule  of  propor- 
tioning the  means  to  the  end,,  will  generally  be  the  most  successful. 

Take  the  case  of  a  Venetian  entrance  recessed  into  a  dwelling- 
house,  embellished  by  two  columns,  and  two  antee,  their  front  line 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  front  of  the  building.  The  whole  front 
above  and  directly  over  the  entablature  apparently  depends  on  the 
two  columns  for  support.  Under  such  circumstances,  any  one  who 
should  fail  to  make  a  column  nearly  or  quite   a  diameter  less  in 

*   Aa  found  on  the  Ionic  Temple  on  the  River  Illissus. 


THE    TUSCAN    ORDER.  31 

height,  than  he  would  if  the  columns  projected  and  were  completely 
insulated  from  the  front  line  of  the  building  and  had  nothing  but 
their  entablatures  to  support,  would  soon  be  convinced  of  the  error 
in  his  judgment.  When  columns  are  to  be  erected,  consider  for 
what  end  they  are  to  be  made  :  if  for  the  support  of  any  great 
weight,  then  make  them  of  a  size  sufficient  to  answer  that  end  ;  if 
for  ornament  merely,  and  not  for  the  support  of  any  great  burden, 
construct  them  accordingly. 

The  example  here  exhibited  does  not  differ  essentially,  in  its  gene- 
ral proportions,  from  that  left  as  by  Palladio,  its  column  being  seven, 
and  its  entablature  two  diameters  in  height.  There  is  a  difference 
however  in  the  details,  between  this  and  Palladio's,  and  most  or  all  of 
the  other  examples.  The  character  of  the  Grecian  Doric  has  been 
imitated  in  several  particulars.  First,  by  leaving  off  the  base  ;  and 
in  the  capital,  the  echinus  and  the  channel  which  divides  the  capital 
from  the  column.  The  necking  is  fluted  in  imitation  of  that  in  Tra- 
jan's column  at  Rome.  The  architrave  has  only  one  fascia,  the 
crowning  moulding  of  which  is  in  Grecian  style.  The  cornice  is 
divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  bed-mould,  the  corona,  and  the  crowning 
moulding. 

The  bed-mould  is  recessed  up  into  the  corona,  so  as  almost  to 
conceal  the  ovolo.  This  allows  all  the  parts  of  the  cornice  to  be 
somewhat  enlarged  and  more  strongly  marked  ;  which  gives  them 
more  of  that  robust  simplicity  of  character,  which  is  peculiar  to  this 
order.  The  corona  and  crown  moulding  of  this  example  are  some- 
what increased  in  altitude,  compared  with  those  of  Palladio.  The 
projection  of  the  cima-recta  is  less  than  his,  its  outline  forming  a 
part  of  an  ellipsis.  The  column  diminishes  twelve  minutes.  The 
diminution  may  begin  at  one  fourth  from  its  base,  and  the  outline 
of  its  sides  be  curved,  as  practised  by  the  Romans  ;   or,  which  is 


32  THE    TUSCAN    ORDER. 

believed  to  be  preferable,  the  diminution  may  begin  at  its  base,  in 
the  Grecian  style,  and  the  outline  of  its  sides  be  straight  or  gently 
curved  outwards. 

To  draw  this  order  to  any  given  height,  divide  the  height  given 
into  nine  equal  parts,  and  give  one  to  the  diameter  of  the  column 
just  above  its  base.  Suppose  a  height  of  fifteen  feet  be  required. 
Divide  fifteen  feet  into  nine  equal  parts.  One  of  the  parts  must  be 
one  foot  eight  inches  :  this  is  the  diameter  of  the  column.  Then 
divide  one  foot  eight  inches  into  sixty  equal  parts,  which  are  called 
minutes.  In  practice  this  is  easily  done,  by  dividing  one  foot  eight 
inches  into  six  equal  parts,  each  of  which  will  of  course  be  ten  mi- 
nutes, and  then  dividing  each  sixth  into  ten  equal  parts,  one  of  which 
will  be  one  minute.  By  this  scale  all  the  members  of  the  order  are 
to  be  proportioned,  either  in  height  or  projection,  each  member  being 
so  many  minutes  of  the  scale,  as  is  figured  on  the  plate. 

The  directions  here  given  for  making  a  scale  of  minutes  will 
serve  for  all  the  remaining  orders. 


DETAILS    OF     THE     TUSCAN    ORDER. 


PLATE  VI. 
The  outlines  of  which  the  mouldings  of  the  Tuscan  order  are 
composed,  are  exhibited  on  a  large  scale.  These  outlines  are  in  the 
true  Grecian  style.  It  will,  therefore,  be  very  important  to  the 
student  to  examine  the  particular  shape  and  character  of  each  dili- 
gently and  carefully,  and  to  imitate  them  exactly  in  his  practice, 
be  they  enlarged  or  diminished.  For  he  must  remember,  that  the 
beauty  or  deformity  of  every  composition  of  this  kind  depends  mostly 


crtM  e iH  d:b  i   : 


/y  (/ 


a;./.  .>. 


21 

hr  3 

</ 

|» 

n 

( 

«% 

i 

/'- 

-    I 


/>-/.  / 


/;..•  2 


/;..•  / 


5 


THE    TUSCAN    ORDER.  33 

upon  the  fitness  of  its  mouldings.  In  the  Grecian  system  the  stu- 
dent must  especially  strive  to  accustom  his  eye  to  discern  the  true 
outline  of  each  moulding  ;  since  the  superiority  of  the  Grecian 
system  over  the  Roman  is  in  nothing  more  conspicuous,  than  in  the 
beautiful  variety  of  the  outlines  of  its  mouldings. 

In  the  Roman  system,  a  severe  study  of  the  mouldings  is  not 
necessary.  The  outline,  being  a  part  of  a  circle,  can  easily  be 
described  with  the  compasses. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  a  true  method  of  drawing  a  raking  moulding, 
which  will  coincide  with  a  given  moulding,  and  also  a  return 
moulding,  which  in  like  manner  coincides  with  the  raking  moulding. 

Let  A  be  the  given  moulding.  Draw  the  vertical  line  a  e  b  and 
c  d,  and  join  b  d,  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  projection  of  the  mould- 
ing. Divide  the  outline  of  the  moulding  from  a  to  c  into  any  num- 
ber of  parts,  either  equal  or  unequal.  This  example  is  divided  into 
seven  equal  parts.  From  each  one  of  the  divisions  draw  vertical  lines, 
cutting  b  d  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6.  Make  the  back  line  of  B,  the 
raking  moulding,  at  right  angles  with  the  raking  line  ;  and  that  of  C, 
the  return  moulding,  vertical  or  parallel  to  that  of  A.  Make  b  d  in 
B,  and  b  d  in  Gt  each  equal  to  b  d  in  A.  The  projections  of  each 
will  then  be  equal.  From  the  outline  of  A,  and  at  the  points  a,  1, 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  c,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  rake  and  extend  them 
through  both  B  and  C.  Make  b  1,  b  2,  b  3,  b  4,  b  5,  b  6,  and  b  d, 
on  B  and  C,  equal  to  the  corresponding  figures  on  A  ;  then  from 
the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  on  b  d,  in  both  B  and  C,  draw  lines  parallel 
to  the  back  line  of  the  mouldings,  cutting  the  raking  lines  before 
described  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  Through  these  points,  and 
at  a  and  c,  trace  the  curve  in  both  B  and  C,  and  the  outline  is 
completed. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  outline  of  the  moulding  and  fillet  to  the  archi- 
9 


34  COLUMN    AND    ENTABLATURE. 

trave.  Fig.  3  shows  those  of  the  capital.  The  necking  of  the 
latter  is  decorated  with  twenty  flutes,  in  exact  imitation  of  Doric 
flutes  ;  to  the  directions  for  fluting  which,  the  reader  is  referred  for 
a  knowledge  of  forming  these.  The  line  a  b  shows  the  depth  and 
termination  of  the  flute  under  the  annulet  of  the  capital. 

Fig.  4  shows  an  example  of  a  base  suitably  constructed  for  this 
column,  if  one  is  to  be  employed  ;  though  it  is  believed  that  the 
column  will  generally  succeed  best  without  it. 

Fig.  5  exhibits  a  capital  for  a  pilaster,  having  the  breadth  of  the 
pilaster  figured  upon  it. 


COLUMN     AND     ENTABLATURE. 

* 

PLATE   VII. 

I  am  aware  that  the  publication  of  anything  in  the  shape  of  an 
order,  unless  it  be  really  one  of  the  Grecian  or  Roman  orders,  is, 
by  persons  well  versed  in  architecture,  thought  to  be  little  less  than 
heresy.  Although  I  am  not  much  disposed  to  differ  with  them  in 
their  opinion,  I  have  deemed  it  advisable  in  this  case  to  depart  from 
it.  My  reasons  for  so  doing  proceed  from  the  fact,  that  more  than 
one  half  of  all  the  columns  and  entablatures  erected  in  country 
situations,  for  either  internal  or  external  finishings,  belong  neither  to 
the  Grecian  nor  Roman  system.  The  same  fact  holds  true  in  rela- 
tion to  our  cities  and  large  towns.  Any  person  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  compute  the  number  of  instances,  in  which  some  one  of 
the  regular  orders  is  employed  in  any  street  of  our  cities,  or  villages, 
will  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  assertion.  I  have  made  the 
comparison  in  two  streets,  which  present  more  buildings  of  the  first 


sSSTB   EBSy'S'&IBIL.&.TI'tmiB  , 


HI.ATK,     VII 


COLUMN    AND    ENTABLATURE.  35 

class,  in  proportion  to  their  number,  than  any  other  streets  of  their 
length  in  this  city,  and  have  found  the  regular  orders  employed  in 
only  thirteen  places,  while  other  columns  and  entablatures  were 
substituted  in  twenty-three  places. 

I  have  often  inquired  the  reason  of  this,  from  very  intelligent 
workmen,  and  have  as  often  received  for  answer,  that  the  Tuscan 
order  is  too  massive  and  plain,  the  Doric  too  expensive,  and  the 
Ionic  too  rich,  and  that  they  are  therefore  under  the  necessity  of 
composing  a  column  and  entablature  which  will  conform  to  the 
views  and  purses  of  their  employers. 

With  these  facts  before  me,  no  doubts  rest  in  my  mind  but  what 
it  would  be  better  to  give  a  design  here  of  a  column  and  entablature, 
constructed  on  scientific  principles,  and  of  a  character  capable  of 
meeting  the  views  and  practice  above  mentioned,  than  to  leave 
it  to  be  composed  by  unskilful  hands. 

In  the  composition  here  exhibited,  the  shaft  of  the  column, 
together  with  its  flutes  and  fillets,  are  injmitation  of  that  found  in 
the  interior  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassse.  This  column  was 
crowned  with  a  very  singular  Ionic  capital,  of  an  angular  form. 
Its  base  was  also  singular  in  its  composition.  Neither  of  them, 
however,  were  deficient  in  beauty.  The  shaft  has  here  been  adopt- 
ed on  account  of  its  novel,  graceful  and  simple  aspect.  The  flutes 
in  their  section  are  in  exact  imitation  of  the  best  Grecian  Doric 
flutes,  but  differ  from  any  of  the  Doric  examples  by  being  separated 
by  very  small  fillets,  which  are  in  breadth  equal  to  one  fifth  or  sixth 
of  the  breadth  of  the  flute.  The  flutes  are  twenty  in  number,  and 
descend  and  terminate  on  the  scape  of  the  column,  in  an  elliptical 
form,  like  their  section.  They  also  terminate  at  their  upper  extre- 
mity on  the  scape  in  the  same  manner.  All  the  details  of  the  flutes 
and  fillets,  and  also  those  of  the  whole  composition,  are  very  accu- 


36  COLUMN    AND    ENTABLATURE. 

rately  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  figured  in  minutes.  Great  care 
has  been  taken  to  give  to  the  outline  of  all  the  mouldings  the  true 
Grecian  character. 

The  base  is  in  its  general  form  somewhat  like  that  given  by 
Vitruvius  in  his  Tuscan  order  ;  but  the  torus  is  elliptical,  and 
fluted,  in  imitation  of  some  of  the  best  Grecian  examples  of  the 
Ionic  base.  The  base  is  not  therefore  either  Tuscan  or  Ionic,  but 
it  stands  in  equipoise  between  the  two. 

The  capital  is  imitated  from  that  found  on  the  newly  discovered 
temple  at  Cadachio,  in  the  island  of  Corfu.  In  its  annulets,  it  par- 
takes of  both  the  Grecian  and  Roman  schools  ;  but  in  the  remain- 
ing details  it  is  purely  Grecian,  and  a  beautiful  specimen  of  their 
system. 

The  entablature  is  two  diameters  in  height,  and  is  divided  into 
three  parts :  the  architrave,  the  frieze,  and  the  cornice  ;  the  details 
of  which  have  been  selected  with  a  view  to  economy  and  an  adap- 
tation to  the  column  and  to  modern  practice.  In  the  cornice,  the 
corona  has  a  great  projection  and  height  ;  the  crown  moulding  has 
also  a  great  height,  but  a  small  projection.  The  bed-mould  is  some- 
what singular  in  its  form,  and  about  one  half  its  altitude  is  recessed 
up  into  the  plancer  of  the  corona,  which  allows  the  members  of  the 
cornice  to  be  somewhat  enlarged.  With  one  single  exception,  each 
moulding  of  this  composition  is  indebted  to  some  one  of  the  conic 
sections  for  its  beautiful  variety  of  outline.  As  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  the  elements,  which  compose  this  column  and  enta- 
blature, have  been  the  cause  of  much  research  and  great  solicitude, 
I  hope  that,  when  it  shall  be  decided  not  to  employ  either  of  the 
regular  orders,  this  composition  may  be  found  worthy  of  being 
made  a  substitute. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  larger  and  better  class  of  edifices  will 


t  & 


fig.  I 


-    - 

M                        /'• 

L5 
**                                       / 

8? 

/ 

ft 

<2 

% 

COLUMN    AND    ENTABLATURE.  37 

always  be  decorated  with  some  one  of  the  orders,  as  the  proprietor 
will  be  amply  compensated  for  the  difference  in  expense,  by  the 
chaste  and  classic  appearance  of  his  building.  It  is  to  be  expected, 
therefore,  that  this  design  will  be  used  only  on  the  smaller  and 
cheaper  class  of  buildings  ;  in  which  case  it  will  seldom  be  required 
to  make  the  column  larger  than  the  Ionic  proportions,  say.  nine 
diameters. 

If  this  example  is  to  be  used  for  a  portico,  where  the  house  is  of 
small  dimensions,  tjle  windows  and  door  likewise  being  of  a  small 
size,  it  will  be  most  proper  to  make  the  column,  at  least,  nine 
diameters  in  height.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  house  be  of  a  large 
size,  as  also  the  doors  and  windows,  it  will  be  advisable  to  make  the 
column  about  eight  diameters  in  height. 

PLATE  VIII. 

On  this  plate  are  exhibited,  on  a  large  scale,  the  details  of  the 
Column  and  Entablature  of  the  preceding  plate. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  cornice,  with  its  members  figured  in  minutes. 
It  must  be  remembered,  that  those  mouldings,  which  are  recessed 
up  under  the  member  next  above  them,  show  here  their  whole  height, 
and  they  are  figured  accordingly.  But  in  the  preceding  plate,  that 
part  only  is  figured  which  is  seen  in  a  direct  front  view. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  the  outline  of  the  architrave  ;  fig.  3,  that  of  the 
capital  ;  and  fig.  4,  of  the  base.  The  lines  d  c,  on  the  shaft  of  the 
column  near  the  base,  and  also  b  a,  on  the  neck  of  the  column, 
represent  the  depth  of  the  flute,  and  its  termination  at  each  end. 

Fig.  5  exhibits  the  plan  of  the  plinth  and  base  of  the  column. 
The  line  f  shows  the  extreme  outline  of  the  base  moulding  ;  e,  the 
outline  of  the  fillet,  which  joins  the  scape  ;  c,  the  line  encircling  the 
lower  diameter  of  the  column  ;  b,  the  upper  diameter ;  and  a,  the 

10 


38  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

depth  of  the  channel  which  separates  the  capital  from  the  shaft  of 
the  column.  j» 

In  order  to  flute  the  shaft  of  this  column,  first  divide  its- periphery 
into  twenty  equal  parts,  and  subdivide  one  of  those  into  six  equal 
parts.  Make  each  flute  equal  to  live,  and  each  fillet  to  one  of  these 
parts.  Make  the  section  of  the  flute  elliptical  and  in  imitation  of 
this  example,  which  is  one  and  three  fourths  of  a  minute  in  depth 
at  the  lower  diameter,  and  one  and  one  half  minutes  at  the  upper 
diameter.  The  lines,  at  the  letter  d',  exhibit  the  termination  of  the 
flute  on  the  scape. 


THE     DORIC     ORDER 


PLATE   IX. 

In  the  early  practice  of  the  Doric  order,  by  the  Greeks,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  column  was  usually  about  four  diameters  ;  but  in  later 
times,  this  altitude  was  increased  to  six,  or  six  and  one  half  diame- 
ters. Most  or  all  of  the  details  of  the  order  experienced,  in  like 
manner,  a  change.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  two,  of  even  the 
best  specimens,  and  those  too  which  were  erected  at  the  same  period, 
agree  either  in  their  general  or  their  particular  parts. 

But  nowhere  are  to  be  found  omitted,  the  twenty  flat  flutes  with- 
out intervening  fillets,  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze  and  the  mutules  in 
the  cornice,  with  all  their  appendages.  These  formed  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  the  order.  Their  distribution  has  always  been 
uniform.  No  deviation  whatever  was  allowed.  It  was  by  the 
undeviating  arrangements  of  these  elements  that  Grecian  architects 
were  enabled,  notwithstanding  the  latitude  used  in  other  less  impor- 


SD®IR!I<S    ®SId)1S^,„ 


PI.      IX 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.  39 

tant  respects,  to  maintain  rigidly  the  Doric  character  in  all  their 
structures  of  that  order.  The  Grecian  architects,  therefore,  were 
not  servile  imitators,  though  followers  of  a  general  system.  They 
evidently  understood  well  the  universal  rule  of  proportioning  the 
means  to  the  end  ;  a  rule  which  has  been  mentioned  here  often 
enough  to  show  that  it  is  thought  to  be  of  vital  importance. 

The  diminution  of  the  shaft  of  the  column  was  different  in 
different  examples.  That  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  was  thirteen 
minutes.  The  lines  making  the  boundary  were  straight,  or  gently 
curved  outwards.  The  periphery  was  generally  divided  into  twenty 
equal  parts,  each  part  being  the  breadth  of  a  flute ;  which,  in  most 
of  the  best  examples,  commenced  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
column,  and  terminated  under  the  first  annulet  of  the  capital.  In 
some  of  the  best  specimens,  however,  the  flutes  extend  up  the  column 
only  about  ten  minutes,  and,  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  column, 
from  the  first  annulet  of  the  capital  down  to  the  channel,  which 
divides  the  capital  from  the  shaft.  There  are  also  one  or  two  fine 
examples,  in  which  the  column  is  divided  into  only  sixteen  flutes, 
the  section  of  which  is  elliptical. 

When  the  section  of  the  flute  was  a  segment  of  a  circle,  it  was 
drawn  from  the  summit  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  whose  sides  were 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  a  flute.  Its  section  was  generally  elliptical, 
and  when  so  its  depth  was  about  the  same  as  when  a  part  of  a 
circle. 

The  capital  was  divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  abacus,  the  echinus, 
its  annulets  and  the  necking.  The  abacus  varies  from  nine  to  twelve 
minutes  in  height,  having  the  faces  plain.  Under  and  adjoining  it, 
is  the  echinus,  whose  outline  resembles  that  of  a  chesnut,  and  is,  in 
the  best  specimens,  either  elliptical  or  hyperbolical.  This  moulding, 
together  with  the  annulets,  is  generally  equal  in  height  to  the 
abacus. 


40  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

The  annulets  are  in  number  from  three  to  five,  falling  off  under 
each  other  vertically,  like  an  inverted  flight  of  steps,  and  partaking  of 
the  general  outline  of  the  echinus  in  the  arrangement  of  their  angles. 
In  the  best  examples,  at  about  thirty  minutes  below  the  top  of  the 
abacus,  is  a  channel,  of  about  one  halftof  a  minute  in  breadth,  and 
three  in  depth,  sunk  equally  all  around  the  shaft,  which  divides  the 
capital  from  the  shaft  of  the  column. 

The  height  of  the  entablature  varies  in  different  examples.  The 
example  taken  from  the  Temple  of  Minerva,  on  the  Acropolis,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  the  order,  is  very  near  two 
diameters  in  height.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  architrave, 
the  frieze,  and  the  cornice.  These  members,  also,  vary  in  different 
examples.  The  architrave  and  the  frieze  in  the  same  examples  are 
very  nearly  equal  in  height.  The  height  of  the  cornice  varies  from 
twenty-one  to  thirty-two  minutes.  The  frieze  and  architrave  of  the 
Temple  of  Minerva  are  each  forty-three,  and  the  cornice  thirty- 
three  minutes  in  height.  The  face  of  the  architrave  is  always  one 
uniform  plane,  divided  from  the  frieze  by  a  band  or  tenia  of  rectan- 
gular form,  which  continues  along  the  entablature  in  one  unbroken 
plane.  Under  this  band,  and  immediately  under  each  triglyph,  are 
regula,  or  fillets,  to  which  are  attached  six  conical  drops.  The 
ends  of  each  regula,  and  the  extremities  of  the  drops,  are  in  the  same 
vertical  line  with  the  edges  of  the  triglyph  above.  The  drops  are 
frustums  of  very  acute  cones,  approaching  nearly  to  cylinders. 
Their  height  never  exceeds  three-fourths  of  their  diameter  at  the 
base. 

The  frieze  is  decorated  with  triglyphs  and  metopes.  The  trig- 
lyphs  are  from  twenty-seven  and  one  half  to  thirty-one  minutes  in 
breadth,  and  about  three  minutes  in  thickness.  Their  length  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  breadth  of  the  frieze.     The  angle  of  the  frieze 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.  41 

is  always  finished  by  two  triglyphs,  meeting  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  channels  are  common  to  both.  The  metopes  in 
the  temples  of  Theseus  and  Minerva,  were  enriched  with  historical 
representations  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship.  None  of  the 
embellishments,  however,  were  allowed  to  project  much  beyond  the 
frame  which  enclosed  them. 

The  cornice  is  a  distinguished  feature  in  this  order.  It  has  a 
sloping  plancer  to  indicate  the  inclination  of  the  rafters  in  the  roof; 
and  under  the  plancer,  mutules,  with  three  rows  of  drops,  six  in  each 
row,  hung  to  their  under  surface.  The  mutules  are  equal  in  breadth 
to  the  triglyphs.  They  are  so  distributed,  that  the  centre  of  one  is 
exactly  over  that  of  a  triglyph  ;  and  of  another,  exactly  over  the 
centre  of  every  metope.  The  centres  of  a  mutule  and  triglyph  are 
to  range  over  that  of  each  column,  except  the  one  supporting  the 
angle  of  the  entablature.  The  corona  is  very  broad,  and  the  crown- 
ing moulding,  in  most  of  the  examples,  and  in  all  of  the  best  speci- 
mens, is  composed  of  a  cymatium  and  fillet,  or  ovolo  with  a  fillet 
above  it. 

This  ancient  order,  as  practised  by  the  Romans,  and  also  by  the 
moderns  until  after  Stuart  and  Revet  published  their  splendid  work 
on  Grecian  architecture,  lost  much  of  its  original  character.  It  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  much  a  favorite  among  the  Romans,  who 
have  left  us  but  few  examples  of  it.  That  of  the  Theatre  of  Mar- 
cellus  is  esteemed  the  most  perfect.  The  column  of  that  example 
is  seven  diameters  and  fifty-eight  minutes  in  height,  without  a  base, 
and  stands  on  a  step.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is  not  fluted.  The 
capital  consists  of  three  parts  ;  the  abacus,  the  echinus  with  its 
annulets,  and  the  necking.  The  abacus  is  capped  by  a  cymatium, 
which  renders  its  appearance  so  small  and  trifling  that  it  will  not 
compare  with  the  Grecian  original.     The  outline  of  the  echinus  is 

11 


42  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

a  part  of  a  circle,  and  consequently  likewise  inferior  to  the  Grecian 
original,  which  is  either  an  ellipsis  or  an  hyperbola.     The  annulets' 
under  the  echinus  are  large,  and  well  proportioned  to  themselves  and 
to  the  capital. 

The  capital  is  finished  by  a  .necking,  encircling  the  column  at 
about  thirty  minutes  from  the  upper  extremity  of  the  abacus.  This 
necking,  in  imitation  of  that  employed  at  the  base  of  the  Corinthian 
capital,  is  a  substitute  for  that  graceful  channelling,  which  encircles 
the  neck  of  every  Grecian  Doric  column,  and  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  order. 

As  a  part  of  the  cornice  of  this  example  is  wanting,  the  exact 
height  of  the  entablature  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  but  it  could  not 
have  been  far  from  one  diameter  fifty-three  minutes.  The  archi- 
trave is  thirty-one  minutes  in  height  ;  the  frieze,  forty-six  ;  and  the 
cornice,  thirty-six.  The  architrave  is  in  one  plane,  capped  by  a 
tenia  of  rectangular  form,  also  in  one  plane.  Under  each  triglyph 
is  a  regula,  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  triglyph,  to 
which  are  hung  six  conical  drops.  The  face  of  the  frieze  recedes 
about  two  minutes  from  the  vertical  line  of  the  architrave.  The 
triglyphs,  therefore,  project  about  one  half  of  their  thickness,  or  two 
minutes.  They  are  thirty-one  minutes  in  breadth,  and  forty-five  min- 
utes distant  from  each  other,  and  are  decorated  on  the  face  with 
two  channels  and  two  half  channels.  A  centre  of  a  triglyph  is 
placed  over  the  centre  of  each  column.  The  cornice  has  a  sloping 
plancer,  ornamented  with  mutules,  one  over  each  triglyph,  and  en- 
riched with  three  rows  of  drops,  six  in  each  row.  Both  mutules 
and  drops  are  recessed  up  into  the  corona  behind  a  small  moulding, 
so  as  to  be  wholly  concealed  from  a  direct  front  view.  The  next 
member  below  the  mutules  is  a  denticulated  band,  supported  by  a 
cymatium.     The  corona  and  crowning  moulding  are  both  large  and 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.  43 

well  proportioned.  The  cornice  has  a  great  projection,  and  is  well 
proportioned  to  itself  and  the  entablature  ;  nevertheless,  the  beau- 
tiful dentil  in  this  cornice  is  out  of  its  place,  as  it  belongs  pecu- 
liarly to  the  Ionic  cornice,  of  which  it  is  characteristic. 

There  were  other  examples  of  the  order  discovered  among  the 
Roman  antiquities,  which  were  very  rich  and  beautiful,  although 
the  legitimate  Doric  character  had  been  departed  from. 

That  at  Albano,  near  Rome,  holds  a  high  rank  amongst  the  Ro- 
man examples.  Its  general  proportions  do  not  differ  essentially  from 
those  of  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus.  The  column  is  left  plain  ;  and 
in  the  capital  an  astrigal  is  substituted  for  the  annulets.  The  echi- 
nus and  cymatium  of  the  abacus  are  both  enriched.  The  architrave 
is  divided  into  two  faces,  and  separated  from  the  frieze  by  a  bead, 
with  a  fillet  above  and  a  fillet  below  it.  This  moulding  is  broken 
over  the  triglyphs,  and  the  drops  under  it  are  hung  from  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  fillet.  The  triglyphs  in  the  frieze  are  so  distributed 
as  to  form  the  metopes  into  a  geometrical  square  ;  and  the  metopes 
themselves  are  decorated  with  sculpture  of  a  very  rich  character. 
A  mutule  is  placed  directly  over  each  triglyph,  the  edges  of  which 
are  composed  of  a  cymatium  with  a  fillet  above  it  ;  and,  hung  to  its 
plancer,  are  thirty-six  conical  drops,  six  in  front  and  six  in  flank, 
whose  lengths  are  equal  to  their  largest  diameter.  The  mutule  fin- 
ishes against  a  band,  or  fillet,  which  is  immediately  above  the  capping 
and  separated  by  it  from  the  triglyph.  The  corona  has  a  great 
projection,  and  together  with  the  crown  moulding  has  likewise  a 
very  respectable  breadth.  The  cornice  and  frieze  are  well  propor- 
tioned to  each  other  and  to  the  whole  composition.  They  partake 
more  strongly  of  the  original  Doric  character  than  those  of  any 
other  Roman  example.  The  architrave  is  too  low  and  in  bad  taste. 
The  capital  is  too  rich  ;  and,  in  imitation  of  all  the   other  Roman 


44  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

examples,  a  clumsy  necking  is  substituted  for  the  beautiful  channel- 
ling of  the  original  Doric  column. 

In  selecting  the  example  here  offered  to  the  public,  my.mtention 
has  been  to  adopt  such  parts  of  the  ancient  examples,  without  regard 
to  the  school  or  country  from  whence  they  were  taken,  as  after 
due  consideration  were  supposed  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  present 
practice. 

I  have  given  eight  diameters  to  the  height  of  the  column,  in  imi- 
tation of  Roman  and  modern  practice  ;  and  to  the  entablature,  two 
diameters  of  the  column  ;  because,  after  a  long  practice  and  due 
consideration,  I  am  persuaded  that,  for  a  general  proportion,  it  is  to 
be  preferred  to  any  other,  and  that  the  average  of  the  Grecian 
entablatures  were  nearly  of  this  height. 

Sir  William  Chambers  and  some  other  modern  architects  have 
proportioned  the  entablature  by  the  height  of  the  column,  and  not 
by  its  thickness,  making  it  one  fourth  part  of  that  height.  This 
practice  should  not  be  imitated.  A  Doric  column,  one  foot  in 
diameter,  would  be  eight  feet  in  height.  The  above  rule  would  give 
one  fourth  of  this  height,  or  two  feet,  to  the  height  of  the  entablature. 
But  a  Corinthian  column,  one  foot  in  diameter,  would  be  ten  feet  in 
height  ;  and  therefore  the  same  rule  would  make  the  height  of  the 
entablature  two  feet  six  inches.  Now  it  will  be  readily  admitted, 
that  the  Doric  column,  of  one  foot  in  diameter  and  eight  feet  in 
height,  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  greater  weight  than  the  Corinthian 
column  of  the  same  diameter  and  ten  feet  in  height.  This  rule  is 
therefore  defective  ;  because  the  Corinthian  column  would  not  be 
capable  of  sustaining  so  heavy  a  weight  as  the  Doric,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  would  be  loaded  with  an  entablature  one  fifth  higher 
than  that  of  the  Doric.  On  the  authority  of  Vitruvius,  we  suppose 
that  the  proportions  of  the  Doric  order  were  taken  from  those  of  a 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.  45 

robust  man  ;  and  of  the  Corinthian,  from  those  of  a  young  female  ; 
and  it  appears   inconsistent  to   load  the  latter,  therefore,   with  a 


greater  burden  than  the  former. 

It  is  not  however  supposed  that  two  diameters  of  the  column  will 
at  all  times  and  in  all  places  be  the  best  proportion  for  the  entabla- 
ture. Circumstances  may  require  the  proportion  to  b»  varied. 
When  used  for  inside  finishing,  or  any  other  place  where  lightness 
is  desired,  the  entablature  may  be  lowered  to  one  hundred  and  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  ;  and  when  it  is  charged,  or  apparently  charged, 
with  any  very  heavy  burden,  it  may  in  that  case  be  raised  to  the 
height  of  an  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  minutes. 

There  is  not,  to  my  knowledge,  a  single  instance  among  all  the 
ancient  examples  of  this  order  where  a  base  is  added  to  the  column, 
the  column  being  so  large  as  not  to  require  one  for  the  sake  of  an 
appearance  of  stability. 

In  this  example  I  have  adopted  the  ancient  practice.  There  rfiay, 
however,  cases  arise  in  practice,  where  it  would  be  proper  to  add  a 
base  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  the  whole  composition  is  small,  and  the 
column  apparently  required  to  support  some  heavy  burden  ;  and, 
when  the  lower  extremity;  viewed  in  connection  with  the  burden 
upon  the  column,  does  not  appear  capable  of  sustaining  the  weight 
without  indenting  itself  into  the  plinth  or  step  on  which  it  stands  ; 
in  which  cases  the  attic  base  would  add  to  the  beauty  and  apparent 
stability  of  the  whole  composition. 

In  the  fluting  of  the  column,  and  also  in  the  formation  of  the 
capital,  the  Grecian  practice  has  been  imitated,  with  one  deviation  ; 
which  deviation  is  to  be  found  in  the  number  of  annulets  in  the 
capital.  In  the  Grecian  practice,  from  three  to  five  was  the  con- 
stant number  employed  ;  but  the  largest  number  occupies  a  space 
of  only  two  minutes,  which,  when  divided  into  nine  lines  or  angles, 

12 


46  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

the  number  required  for*  their  formation,  reduces  each  member  to  so 
small  a  space  as  to  render  it  indistinct.  They  are  not  therefore 
in  keeping  with  the  massive  details  of.  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
order.  In  this  example  the  Grecian  arrangement  of  the  annulets  is 
preserved,  but  the  number  is  reduced  to  two. 

In  the  divisions  of  the  entablature,  the  Grecian  practice  has  been 
imitated,  ^e  frieze  is  in  one  plane,  capped  by  a  tenia,  under 
which,  and  directly  under  eacfi  triglyph,  is  a  regula,  to  which  are 
suspended  six  drops  or  gutta?.  They  are  not  in  imitation  of  either 
the  Greek  or  Roman  practice,  but  a  mean  between  the  two. 

The  angles  of  the  frieze  are  finished  by  two  triglyphs,  meeting 
each  other  so  that  the  half  channels  on  the  edges  of  each  triglyph 
are  in  the  same  plane.  The  triglyphs  are  thirty  minutes  in  front, 
and  seventy-five  from  centre  to  centre,  leaving  the  metopes  forty- 
five  minutes.  A  triglyph  must  be  placed  exactly  over  the  centre  of 
each  column,  except  those  which  support  the  angles  of  the  entabla- 
ture. Under  the  plancer  of  the  cornice,  and  directly  over  each 
triglyph,  and  also  over  each  metope,  is  placed  a  mutule,  whose  width 
is  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  triglyph  ;  and  to  the  under  surface  of 
each  mutule  are  hung  eighteen  drops  in  three  rows,  of  six  in  each 
row. 

PLATE   X. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  a  method  of  diminishing  the  shaft  of  a  column  in 
the  Roman  style.  Let  the  line  A  B  be  the  centre  and  height  of  the 
shaft.  On  A,  with  a  radius  of  one  half  of  the  diameter  at  the  base 
of  the  column,  describe  the  half  circle  o  c.  Draw  4  a,  parallel  to 
o  c,  and  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column  at  its  neck.  Divide  o 
4,  on  the  circular  Une,  intc*four  equal  parts,  ancKjoin  3  e ,  2  d,  and  If. 
Divide  A  B  into  four  parts.     Make  the  diameter  at  1  equal  to  1  f ; 


^-*  -^     .   % 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.  47 

at  2,  to  2  d ;  and  at  3,  to  3  e ;  and  draw  the  curve  lines  o  h  and  c  g, 
which  will  give  the  outline  required. 

This  method  of  diminishing  columns  is  introduced  here,  because 
custom  seems  to  require  it,  and  not  as  a  recommendation  for  its  use. 
I  do  not  know  of  any  situation  where  the  Grecian  system  is  not 
decidedly  preferable.  It  is  said  that  the  shafts  of  columns  were  at 
first  made  of  trunks  of  trees,  and  afterwards  in  imitation  of  them. 
But  although  the  trunk  of  a  tree  diminishes  upwards,  yet  the  lines 
of  its  sides  are  straight,  or  nearly  so  ;  so  that  the  Grecian  architects 
showed  their  wisdom  in  closely  adhering  to  this  natural  and  grace- 
ful form.  It  is  well  known  that  a  column,  whose  sides  are  in  straight 
lines,  will  appear  as  though  its  sides  were  gently  curved  inwards  ; 
for  which  cause  the  Grecian  architects  undoubtedly  made  the  sides 
of  their  columns  to  swell  gently  outwards,  with  the  intention  that 
they  should  appear  to  be  straight  to  the  eye.  This  practice  should 
be  imitated. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  a  design  for  a  capital  to  a  pilaster  ;  fig.  3,  that  of 
a  column.  Fig.  4  shows  one  quarter  of  the  plan  of  the  column  at 
both  base  and  neck,  having  described  upon  it  the  section  of^the 
flutes.  The  clotted  line  d  a  is  the  boundary  of  the  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  e  b  that  at  the  neck.  The  line  cf  shows  the  depth  of  the 
channel,  which  separates  the  shaft  from  the  capital.  Fig.  5  shows 
a  method  of  describing  the  outline  of  a  Doric  flute  bv  centres.  Di- 
vide  o  5,  the  breadth  of  a  flute,  into  five  equal  parts  ;  and  on  o  and  5, 
with  a  radius  equal  to  o  5,  make  the  intersection  d ;  and  from  d, 
through  the  points  1  and  4,  draw  lines  produced  to  b  and  c ;  then 
divide  each  of  the  lines  d  4  and  d  1  into  five  equal  parts  ;  on  a  and 
a,  with  the  radius  a  5  or  a  o,  describe  o  b  and  c  5.  Lastly,  on  d, 
with  the  radius  d  c,  or  d  b,  describe  b  c. 

This  method  of  describing  a  flute  by  centres  has  been  exhibited 


48  THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

more  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  student  some  rule  by  which  he 
may  be  governed  in  relation  to  the  general  shape  and  depth  of  the 
flute,  than  of  recommending  it  as  the  best  method  of  forming  the 
outline.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  real  ellipsis  is  in  all  situa- 
tions to  be  preferred  to  an  imitation  made  by  parts  of  circles. 


PLATE   XI. 

On  this  plate  are  represented  the  details  of  the  Doric  Entablature, 
the  outlines  of  which  are  accurately  drawn  on  a  large  scale,  and 
figured  with  all  those  members  uncovered,  which  are  necessarily 
concealed  in  a  direct  front  view  behind  the  member  next  above 
them. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  the  cornice  with  the  plancer  inverted.  H  H  shows 
designs  of  the  mutules,  with  all  their  parts  figured  in  minutes.  G 
shows  a  section  of  the  triglyph  with  its  cap.  The  honeysuckle  here 
introduced  was  frequently  employed  in  the  best  Grecian  examples 
to  decorate  that  plain  part  of  the  plancer,  and  it  is  admirably  adapt- 
ed to  that  purpose.  It  may,  however,  be  left  off  with  propriety, 
when  expense  is  to  be  avoided,  or  when  plainness  is  desired. 

Fig.  3  exhibits  an  example  of  the  triglyph  with  its  details,  all  of 
which  are  accurately  figured  in  minutes.  A  represents  a  front,  and 
B  a  side  view  of  one  of  the  guttao,  drawn  on  a  large  scale.  C  shows 
the  inverted  plan  of  A,  and  D  that  of  B.  The  circular  line  /  en- 
closes the  base  of  A  and  e,  the  neck.  B  is  supposed  to  match  the 
angle  of  the  architrave,  as  is  shown  at  E.  h  at  D  shows  the  larger, 
and  g  the  smaller  diameter  of  the  guttse.  F  shows  the  depth  of 
the  channelling  of  the  triglyph,  and  also  its  form  at  its  upper 
extremity. 


2®SS"2©    ©IB! 


49 


THE    IONIC    ORDER 


PLATE   XII. 

I  shall  here  speak  of  the  examples  and  practice  of  this  order  by 
its  original  proprietors,  the  Greeks,  and  likewise  by  the  Romans. 

There  have  been  many  fine  examples  discovered  among  the 
antiquities  of  Greece  :  and  although,  like  the  Doric,  the  Ionic  order 
appears  from  these  examples  to  have  been  practised  by  the  Greeks 
with  great  latitude  ;  since  some  were  decorated  with  a  profusion  of 
mouldings,  which  were  covered  with  the  most  beautiful  enrichments, 
while  others  had  but  few  mouldings,  and  these  exceedingly  plain  ; 
yet  all  adhere  strongly  to  a  certain  original  and  peculiar  form. 

The  height  of  the  column  was  originally  eight  diameters.  Its 
shaft  was  decorated  with  twenty-four  flutes,  and  as  many  fillets.  In 
many  of  the  best  specimens,  the  flutes  descended  and  followed  the 
curve  to  the  scape  of  the  column.  The  base  was  generally  about 
one  half  of  the  diameter  of  the  column,  and  wholly  composed  of 
mouldings  ;  the  step  on  which  it  stood,  answering  for  a  plinth.  When 
of  the  attic  kind,  the  scotia  was  very  flat,  its  section  forming  an 
elliptic  curve,  and  was  divided  from  the  upper  torus  by  a  fillet. 
It  generally  projected  as  far  as  the  extremity  of  the  torus,  and  was 
therefore  very  much  exposed  to  fracture,  especially  if  of  small 
dimensions.  It  had  a  very  unsolid  aspect,  and  was  in  fact  inferior 
in  solidity  and  fitness  to  the  attic  base,  as  practised  by  the  Romans. 
The  base  to  the  columns  of  the  Ionic  Temple,  on  the  river  Ilyssus, 
had  its  upper  torus  fluted. 

The  great  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Ionic  order,  is  the  capital. 
In  the  best  specimens,  the  lower  edge  of  the  channel,  which  runs 

13 


50  THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

between  the  volutes,  is  formed  into  a  curve  bending  downwards  in 
the  middle  and  revolving  about  the  spirals  on  either  side.  In  some 
examples,  each  volute  has  two  channels,  formed  by  two  distinct 
spiral  borders.  The  borders  forming  the  exterior  volute  and  the 
under  side  of  the  lower  channel,  have  between  them  a  deep  recess, 
or  spiral  groove,  which  diminishes  gradually  in  breadth  till  it  is  lost 
to  the  eye. 

In  this  last  example,  there  are  so  many  spiral  lines  revolving  about 
the  eye,  that,  unless  the  volute  be  extremely  large,  the  parts  will 
appear  confused  and  indistinct.  It  will  not  therefore  be  the  best 
example  for  imitation. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  this  capital,  for  imitation,  is  taken 
from  the  Temple  on  the  river  Uyssus.  The  simple  dignity  and 
grandeur  of  its  parts,  the  beautiful  contour  of  the  volutes,  and  the 
graceful  curve  of  the  hem  hanging  between  them,  are  in  themselves 
calculated  to  render  it  superior  to  most  others.  Another  very  beau- 
tiful and  more  ornamented  example  of  this  capital  is  taken  from 
the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  at  Priene.  The  proportions  are 
somewhat  varied  from  those  of  the  last  example  ;  but  they  are 
equally  elegant  and  worthy  of  imitation. 

In  most  of  the  Asiatic  remains  of  this  order  the  frieze  is  missing, 
and  therefore  the  height  of  the  entablature  cannot  be  accurately 
ascertained.  The  only  instance  in  which  a  frieze  has  been  disco- 
vered, is  in  the  Theatre  at  Laodicea.  There,  it  is  somewhat  less 
than  one  fifth  of  the  height  of  the  entablature.  In  the  Asiatic  prac- 
tice, great  deviations  were  allowed.  For  instance,  in  the  little  Ionic 
Temple  near  the  river  Uyssus,  we  see  the  cornice  deprived  of  its 
legitimate  ornament  the  dentil,  and  the  architrave  separated  from 
the  frieze  by  an  ovolo,  which  was  finished  by  a  bead  below,  and 
above  by  a  fillet,  the  fascia  of  the  architrave  being  very  broad  and  in 


THE    IONIC    ORDER.  51 

one  vertical  plane.  The  bed-mould  consists  of  a  cirna-reversa,  fin- 
ished below  with  a  bead,  both  of  which  are  recessed  up  into  the 
soffit  of  the  corona.  The  corona  has  a  great  projection  and  height. 
The  crown-moulding  is  a  cima-recta  of  great  height  and  small 
projection,  separated  from  the  corona  by  a  cymatium  and  fillet.  The 
mouldings  are  all  left  entire,  without  any  enrichments  whatever. 

In  other  examples,  such  as  the  Temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  and 
the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene,  the  entablatures  have 
the  dentil,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  chaste  and  appropriate 
mouldings,  the  contours  of  which  are  ornamented  with  a  profusion 
of  delicate  enrichments.  Although  a  marked  difference  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  proportions  of  these  two  examples,  they  are,  notwith- 
standing, both  of  them  extremely  beautiful.  The  architrave  is  com- 
posed of  three  plain  fascia?,  separated  from  the  frieze  by  an  ovolo, 
which  is  finished  below  with  a  bead,  and  above  with  a  cavetto  and 
fillet.  It  has  before  been  stated  that  the  frieze  was  missing,  and  it 
cannot,  therefore,  be  ascertained  whether  it  was  ornamented  or 
plain  ;  but  as  the  other  parts  of  the  composition  were  highly  orna- 
mented, it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  member  was  so  like- 
wise. The  cornices  in  these  two  examples  do  not  differ  essentially, 
the  dentil  being  common  to  both  ;  but,  in  the  Temple  of  Minerva, 
they  are  singularly  prominent,  having  a  projection  equal  to  that  of 
the  modillion  employed  in  this  order  by  Palladio  and  other  modern 
architects.  The  moulding  which  separated  the  dentil  from  the  frieze 
is  wanting  ;  but  probably  it  was  an  ovolo  and  a  bead,  like  the  one 
which  crowns  and  finishes  the  bed-mould.  This  moulding  is  recessed 
up  into  the  soffit  of  the  corona,  which  nearly  conceals  its  height. 
The  corona  has  a  great  projection,  and  is  finished  above  by  a  cyma- 
tium and  fillet,  and  crowned  by  a  cima-recta  of  great  height  and 
small  projection.  In  all  the  Asiatic  Ionics,  the  crownings  of  the 
cornices  are  cima-recta  less  in  projection  than  in  height. 


52  THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

Among  the  Roman  examples  we  observe  great  deviations,  the 
effect  of  which  is  to  degenerate  the  beautiful  Ionic,  so  happily  pre- 
served in  all  the  Greek  examples.  In  the  shaft  of  the  cplumn  no 
marked  difference  appears  to  have  existed,  except  in  the  example 
from  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  at  Rome,  which  had  only 
twenty  flutes  and  as  many  fillets.  The  base  of  this  example  is  of 
the  attic  kind,  and  its  details  are  well  proportioned  to  themselves 
and  the  columns.  Taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  beautiful  specimen, 
much  superior  in  arrangement  and  effect  to  any  of  the  Asiatic  Ionic 
bases.  The  different  members  of  which  the  capital  is  composed, 
do  not  bear  that  harmonious  proportion  to  each  other  which  appears 
in  the  beautiful  Greek  original.  The  echinus,  and  the  astragal 
below  it,  are  too  massive  for  the  remaining  part  of  the  composition, 
and  the  space  between  the  upper  extremity  of  the  echinus  and  the 
lower  edge  of  the  fillet  of  the  volute  is  too  small.  The  entablature 
is  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  minutes  in  height.  The  architrave 
is  thirty-nine  minutes,  of  the  same  height,  and  is  divided  into  three 
fascise,  the  upper  edges  of  which  recede  about  one  fourth  of  a  minute 
from  a  vertical  line.  The  middle  fascia  is  singularly  decorated  with 
an  ornamented  bead,  situated  near  its  centre,  and  is  capped  by  a 
very  flat  cima-reversa  and  a  broad  fillet  above  it.  The  frieze  is 
twenty-nine  minutes  in  height,  and  is  profusely  ornamented.  The 
cornice  is  seventy  minutes  in  height.  Its  bed-mould  is  composed 
of  a  dentil  band,  faintly  marked,  and  is  separated  from  the  frieze  by 
a  cima-reversa  with  its  fillets,  and  a  band  of  singular  shape,  above 
which  is  an  ovolo,  which  finishes  the  bed-mould 

The  corona  is  very  low,  and  in  shape  and  arrangement  resembles 
that  in  Palladio's  Tuscan  order.  The  mouldings  above  it  consist 
of  a  cymatium,  a  broad  fillet  and  a  cima-recta,  of  great  height  and 
projection.  All  the  mouldings  in  the  entablature,  except  the  cyma- 
tium under  the  crown  moulding,  are  highly  enriched. 


THE    IONIC    ORDER.  53 

A  leading  defect  in  this  cornice  is,  that  the  corona  does  not  suffi- 
ciently predominate  over  the  other  members.  It  seems  to  have  lost 
its  honorable" station  as  principal.  This  defect  might  have  been 
removed  by  giving  to  the  corona  more  projection  and  more  height. 
Another  striking  defect  is  in  tl-e  too  great  abundance  and  magni- 
tude of  the  mouldings,  particularly  of  those  above  the  corona.  The 
cornice  occupies  the  large  space  of  seventy  minutes,  which  is  in 
itself  a  defect,  incapable  of  being  remedied  by  the  most  judicious 
distribution  of  its  details. 

The  next  Roman  example  of  which  I  shall  speak,  is  taken  from 
the  Theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome.  The  capital  is  more  defective 
than  that  last  described  ;  but  in  the  entablature,  the  proportions  are 
more  judiciously  arranged.  The  cornice  is  not  so  massive,  nor  so 
abundant  in  mouldings.  The  architrave  is  composed  of  three  plain 
fasciae,  separated  from  the  frieze  by  a  cima-reversa  and  fillet.  Al- 
though this  entablature,  both  in  the  whole  and  in  its  parts,  is  decid- 
edly preferable  to  that  of  the  foregoing  example,  still  it  falls  far 
short  of  the  Greek  originals,  and  is  not  therefore  worthy  of  our 
imitation. 

Another  example,  taken  from  the  Coliseum  at  Rome,  is,  in  its 
entablature,  divided  into  three  parts.  The  architrave  is  similar  to 
the  one  last  described,  having  the  fasciae  not  in  a  vertical  line,  but 
receding  by  their  top  edge  about  three-fourths  of  a  minute.  The 
frieze  is  plain.  The  bed-mould  of  the  cornice  is  composed  of  a 
dentil,  finished  below  by  a  cymatium,  and  above  by  an  ovolo.  The 
corona  has  a  good  projection,  and  is  tolerably  high.  The  crown 
moulding  is  composed  of  a  cymatium,  fillet  and  cima-recta  of  good 
proportions.  The  capital  is  slightly  finished,  the  volutes  ending 
after  about  one  and  a  quarter  revolutions.  It  is  in  its  proportions 
similar  to  the  two  last  described. 

14 


54  THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

Only  one  more  Roman  example  will  be  mentioned,  and  this  not 
as  an  example  worthy  of  imitation,  but  that  we  may  avoid  it. 

This  example  is  from  the  Temple  of  Concord  at  Rome.  The 
capital  being  of  the  angular  kind,  its  volutes  are  very  small  and 
bolstered  up  on  a  series  of  mouldings  of  large  size  and  not  at  all 
adapted  to  the  capital.  Although  the  mouldings  are  highly  enrich- 
ed, yet  the  capital  is  defective  in  all  its  details,  no  one  seeming  to 
be  well  adapted  to  the  place  it  occupies. 

The  architrave  consists  of  two  plain  fasciae  and  a  cavetto.  The 
projection  of  the  frieze  is  equal  to  that  of  the  architrave.  The 
architrave  did  not  extend  across  the  front  of  the  temple.  The  whole 
space  between  the  lower  extremity  of  the  cornice  down  to  the  capi- 
tal is  in  one  plane,  without  any  intervening  moulding. 

The  cornice  is  of  itself  singularly  constructed.  In  the  bed-mould 
it  has  dentils  and  mutules,  the  dentils  being  small  and  the  mutules 
of  a  novel  construction.  The  plancer  of  the  cornice  is  enriched 
with  a  panel  recessed  up  into  the  soffit  of  the  corona,  and  between 
each  two  of  the  mutules,  in  which  is  a  very  rich  rosette.  This  cor- 
nice, with  some  alterations,  might  be  used  with  success  in  many 
situations  ;  but  it  does  not  belong  to  the  legitimate  Ionic. 

The  example  here  exhibited  is  decidedly  Grecian,  the  base  being 
the  only  member  which  can  claim  any  affinity  to  the  Roman  prac- 
tice. The  different  members  of  this  composition  have  been  care- 
fully selected  from  the  most  approved  specimens  of  this  order,  with 
such  deviations  therefrom  as  were  supposed  necessary  to  adapt  them 
completely  to  the  American  practice.  Nor  were  they  hastily  brought 
into  the  form  which  they  now  assume  ;  for  my  practice,  as  an 
architect,  has  favored  me  with  frequent  opportunities  of  having  this 
example*  wrought  by  the  most  skilful  workmen,   and  of  removing 

*  The  other  orders,  and  nearly  every  example,  in  this  publication,  have  gone  through  the  same  process  as 
that  of  the  Ionic  order. 


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THE    IONIC    ORDER.  55 

original  defects,  after  a  diligent  examination  of  each  member  sepa- 
rately and  collectively. 

The  column  is  here  supposed  to  be  nine  diameters  in  altitude  ;  a 
height  which  seem:-  ■>•  be  the  standard  for  modern  practice.  Its 
base  is  attic,  and  in  imitation  of  the  Roman  practice.  The  shaft 
of  the  column  is  divided  into  twenty-four  flutes,  and  as  many  fillets. 
The  capital  is,  with  some  deviations,  taken  from  that  found  on  the 
Ionic  Temple  on  the  river  Ilyssus  at  Athens.  The  entablature  is 
two  diameters  in  height.  The  architrave  is  divided  into  three  fas- 
ciae, of  nearly  equal  height.  The  cornice  is  decorated  with  its 
legitimate  ornament  the  dentil. 

PLATE   XIII. 

On  this  plate  are  exhibited  the  details  of  the  Ionic  order.  Those 
of  the  preceding  orders  having  been  fully  illustrated  in  their  proper 
place,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  repeat  nearly  the  same  explanations 
here. 

B  exhibits  a  plan  of  one  quarter  of  the  column  at  its  base,  and 
also  at  its  neck,  with  the  flutes  and  fillets  drawn  thereon.  It  has 
been  stated  before,  that  twenty-four  flutes  and  as  many  fillets  are 
the  constant  number  employed  to  decorate  the  column.  If  you 
divide  this  quarter,  therefore,  into  six  parts,  and  one  of  these  again 
into  four  parts,  three  of  the  latter  will  be  equal  to  the  breadth  of  a 
flute,  and  one  to  that  of  a  fillet.  On  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  as  centres, 
describe  the  flutes.  The  outline  of  each  flute  will  then  be  one  half 
of  a  circle  ;  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most  suitable  shape  for  the  sec- 
tion of  the  flute,  if  the  column  be  of  small  dimensions  and  does  not 
exceed  about  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  ;  but  if  its  size  be  much 
increased,  it  will  be  wise  to  cause  the  outline  of  its  section  to  form 


56  THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

an  ellipsis,  the  breadth  and  depth  of  which  may  be  in  about  the  pro- 
portion of  A.  A  section  of  the  latter  fund  is  drawn,  by  dividing  the 
breadth  of  the  flute  into  four  parts,  ^nd  on  1  and  3,  and  with  the 
radius  1  3,  making  tiie  intersection  a ;  through  1  and  3,  drawing  a  1 
produced  to  c,  and  also  a  3  produced  t&'e  ;  on  1  describing  b  c,  and 
on  3  describing  4  e  ;  and  then  on  a  describing  e  c. 

It  may  be  asked  by  some,  why  the  section  of  a  flute  should  be  a 
half  circle  on  a  column  of  small  dimensions,  and  an  ellipsis  on  one 
of  large  dimensions.  The  reasons  are,  that  a  flute  of  one  inch  or 
less  in  breadth  will  not  be  too  strongly  marked  when  its  depth  is 
equal  to  one  half  of  its  breadth  ;  nor  is  the  tasteless  outline  of  a  half 
circle  so  apparent  in  that  case  as  in  a  flute  of  larger  dimensions. 
And  again,  when  the  flutes  are  of  large  dimensions  and  wrought  on 
stone,  the  elliptical  form  saves  considerable  labor  ;  and  if  made  of 
wood,  the  same  form  will  not  require  planks  of  so  great  thickness 
as  the  half  circle. 

Second  Example  of  the  Ionic  Order. 

PLATE  XIV. 

This  example  is  in  imitation  of  that  taken  from  the  little  Ionic 
Temple  near  the  river  Ilyssus  at  Athens,  with  such  deviations  as 
were  supposed  necessary  to  adapt  it  to  modern  practice.  The 
column  is  an  exact  fac-simile  of  its  prototype,  with  the  exception 
of  a  little  more  diminution  in  the  shaft.  The  base  is  without  a 
plinth,  and  the  upper  torus  is  fluted.  In  the  proportion  of  its  mould- 
ings and  their  outlines,  a  considerable  deviation  is  perceptible.  In 
the  capital,  the  height  of  the  volutes  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of 
the  original ;  but  their  breadth  is  somewhat  reduced,  so  that  they 
approach  near  to  the  elliptical  form.     The  fillet  which  forms  the 


MKTAi  L.S     i)K     I'  HUB      [®B  \r     J)  IM>  E  R. 


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* 


THE    IONIC    ORDER.  57 

boundary  of  the  volutes  is  plain,  the  bead  in  the  original  being  left 
off.  This  fillet  is  not  in  a  vertical  line,  but  projects  in  its  course 
to  the  eye  about  one  minute.  The  honeysuckle,  whose  stem  springs 
from  the  point  of  separation  between  the  volute  and  hem,  which 
connects  the  two  volutes,  is  somewhat  enlarged,  and  extends  down 
over  a  part  of  the  echinus. 

The  entablature  is  only  two  diameters  in  altitude.  The  archi- 
trave and  frieze  are  nearly  equal  in  height.  To  the  band  of  the 
architrave  is  added  one  moulding  more  than  is  found  in  the  original. 
The  frieze  was  ornamented  with  sculpture ;  and  the  circumstance 
that  a  large  space  was  required  to  give  it  sufficient  boldness,  was 
probably  the  cause  of  the  entablature  being  made  of  an  extraordi- 
nary height,  and  of  the  bed-mould  being  reduced  in  size.  It  was 
wholly  recessed  up  into  the  soffit  of  the  corona.  In  this  example, 
as  the  frieze  is  plain,  the  bed-mould  is  considerably  enlarged  ;  but 
the  same  outlines  of  mouldings  are  retained  as  are  to  be  found  in 
the  original.  The  other  parts  of  the  cornice  do  not  differ  essentially 
from  their  prototype. 

PLATE   XV. 

On  this  plate  the  cornice,  architrave,  and  the  base  of  the  preced- 
ing plate,  drawn  on  a  large  scale,  are  exhibited.  The  base  is  in 
the  Grecian  taste.  Its  upper  torus  is  fluted  ;  and  the  lower  one  is 
elliptical,  and  supposed  to  stand  on  a  step.  The  student  has  already 
been  advised  of  the  importance  of  faithfully  imitating  the  outline  of 
Grecian  mouldings. 

PLATE   XVI. 

On  this  plate  is  exhibited  a  method  of  drawing  the  Ionic  volute, 
particularly  adapted  to  the  two  preceding  capitals.     At  the  distance 

15 


58  THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

of  two  minutes  from  the  shaft  of  the  column,  draw  the  vertical  line 
a  6.  On  the  point  o  as  a  centre,  which  is  twenty  minutes  distant 
from  a,  describe  the  eye,  giving  it  a  diameter  of  seven  minutes. 
At  the  distance  of  one  and  one  fourth  of  a  minute  above  and  below 
the  eye,  draw  lines  at  right  angles  with  a  6 ;  and  at  the  distance  of 
one  and  one  half  of  a  minute  from  6  a,  and  parallel  with  6  a,  draw 
the  line  10  11.  This  completes  the  outline  of  the  square.  Then, 
from  the  point  o,  draw  diagonals  to  10  and  11  ;  divide  o  10,  and  o 
11,  each  intorthree  equal  parts,  and  from  those  points,  and  at  right 
angles  with  6  a,  draw  lines,  cutting  the  diagonals  at  2  6,  and  3  7  ; 
and  those  points,  together  with  the  angles  of  the  square,  and  12, 
will  be  the  twelve  centres,  from  which  the  volute  must  be  drawn. 

On  1  in  the  square,  and  with  the  radius  1  c,  describe  c  d.  On  2, 
and  with  the  radius  2  d,  describe  d  e.  On  3,  and  with  the  radius 
3  e,  describe  e  f.  On  4,  and  with  the  radius  4  f,  describe  f  g. 
This  completes  one  revolution.  From  5,  describe  g  h ;  on  6,  de- 
scribe h  i  ;  on  7,  describe  i  j  ;  on  8,  describe  j  k  ;  on  9,  describe 
k  I ;  on  10,  describe  I  m  ;  on  11,  describe  m  n  ;  and  on  12,  which, 
it  must  be  observed,  is  one  minute  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  square, 
describe  n  p  ;  which  completes  the  outline  of  the  volute.  To  draw 
the  inside  line  of  the  fillet,  divide  its  breadth  into  twelve  parts,  and 
make  the  fillet  at  n  equal  to  eleven  of  them.  Then  make  m  equal  to 
ten  parts,  and  I  equal  to  nine  parts,  and  continue  to  diminish  the  fillet 
one  twelfth  at  each  quarter  of  a  revolution,  until  it  loses  itself  in  a 
point  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  eye. 

B  exhibits  the  extreme  outline  of  the  fillet  and  eye  of  the  volute, 
figured  in  minutes. 


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THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER.  59 

PLATE    XVII. 

On  this  plate  is  exhibited  an  inverted  plan  and  a  front  and  side 
elevation  of  the  Ionic  capital.  Its  different  members  are  figured  in 
minutes  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  these  details  will  be  clearly  under- 
stood, without  further  explanation. 


THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

PLATE    XVIII. 

Before  selecting  and  arranging  the  members,  of  which  the 
example  here  exhibited  is  composed,  the  few  remaining  examples 
in  Greece,  and  many  fine  ones  in  Rome,  and  also  the  drawings  of 
this  order  by  the  most  celebrated  modern  architects,  were  carefully 
and  critically  examined,  with  a  view  to  select  from  them  such  of 
their  details  as  were  supposed  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  composition 
of  the  order. 

In  the  shaft  of  the  column,  less  deviation  is  observed  in  the  exam- 
ples above  alluded  to,  than  in  any  other  of  its  members.  When 
the  periphery  of  the  shaft  was  divided  into  flutes  and  fillets,  twenty- 
four  of  each  was  the  constant  number  employed.  In  its  altitude, 
greater  deviation  was  visible.  Vitruvius  makes  the  shaft,  excluding 
the  capital,  just  equal  to  that  of  the  Ionic.  It  however  was  some- 
times made  ten  diameters  in  altitude,  though  it  generally  fell  short 
of  that  height.  In  the  capital,  great  deviations  are  also  visible. 
Vitruvius  limits  its  height  to  one  diameter  of  the  column;  but  it  is  in 
the  best  examples  about  seventy  minutes,  and  this  height  is  gene- 


60  THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

rally  adopted  in  modern  practice.  In  some  of  the  ancient  examples 
of  this  capital,  the  angles  of  the  abacus  extend  beyond  the  volute, 
and  terminate  in  an  acute  angle.  This  practice  is  not,  however, 
mentioned  here  as  being  worthy  of  our  imitation,  but  to  be  avoided. 
In  the  details  of  the  sculpture  of  this  capital,  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  two  examples  which  are  exactly  alike.  It  is  therefore 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  architects,  after  having  arranged  the 
general  proportions,  exercised  their  own  fancy  and  judgment  in 
filling  up  the  smaller  and  less  important  parts.  The  capital  here 
exhibited  is  in  imitation,  with  some  few  trifling  deviations,  of  that 
beautiful  one  left  us  by  Andrew  Palladio.  Its  fine  graceful  form, 
and  the  chasteness  of  its  sculpture,  render  it  most  worthy  of  our 
imitation.  The  base  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  the  attic  base. 
When  it  has  been  rejected  in  this  order,  its  substitute  has  generally 
been  composed  of  a  great  variety  and  profusion  of  mouldings,  many 
of  which  must  consequently  be  small,  and  the  effect  of  course 
confused  and  unstable.  It  is  believed  that  the  attic  base,  as  here 
exhibited,  approaches  nearer  to  perfection  than  any  other  ;  for  in 
the  mouldings  of  which  it  is  composed,  a  peculiar  fitness  one  to  the 
other  is  observable,  whether  they  be  viewed  in  relation  to  their  size 
or  shape,  which  could  hardly  be  found  in  any  different  form. 

The  entablature  is  two  diameters  and  eight  minutes  in  height, 
and  similar  to  that  of  many  others,  though  not  an  exact  imitation  of 
any  one.  The  architrave  is  forty  minutes  in  height,  and  divided 
into  three  fascia?  of  nearly  equal  height.  The  first  and  second  are 
divided  by  a  rectangular  projection,  and  the  second  and  third  by  a 
bead.  It  is  capped  by  a  compound  moulding,  consisting  of  the 
echinus,  with  a  bead  below  and  a  fillet  above  it. 

The  frieze  is  thirty-six  minutes  in  height,  and  is  left  plain ;  but  it 
was  profusely  ornamented  in  many  of  the  ancient  examples,  the 


PI  is 


C©IRIK"iriHlIUi\T^     C  ATP  I  TAIL,, 


Elevation 


Section 


"V 


%.. 


/'///// 


THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER.  61 

character  of  which  uniformly  partook  of  that  of  the  structure  which 
they  served  to  adorn. 

The  cornice  is  fifty-two  minutes  in  height.  Many  difficulties 
must  be  encountered  in  composing  and  adjusting  its  members,  caus- 
ed principally  by  the  great  height  and  bulk  of  the  bed-mould,  when 
compared  with  those  of  the  corona  and  crown  moulding.  Every 
cornice  is  divided  into  three  parts  :  viz.  the  corona,  which  is  the 
centre  and  principal  member,  and  to  which  the  other  two  are  only 
subservient  ;  the  bed-mould,  which  is  to  support  and  strengthen  the 
corona ;  and  the  crown  moulding,  which  is  to  fortify  and  defend  it 
from  falling  water.  It  is  therefore  wise  to  reduce  the  altitude  of 
the  bed-mould,  as  much  as  possible,  without  lessening  too  much  the 
height  of  the  mouldings  therein  contained,  and  to  add  so  much  to 
the  height  of  the  corona  as  to  place  it  in  its  proper  and  honorable 
station  as  principal  ;  and  also  to  give  so  much  height  to  the  crown 
moulding,  that  it  will  appear  sufficiently  strong  to  fortify,  strengthen 
and  shelter  its  principal,  the  corona,  without  projecting  so  much  as 
to  cause  the  appearance  of  weakness  and  instability. 

PLATE   XIX. 

This  plate  at  A  exhibits  a  plan  of  the  capital  inverted,  showing 
the  section  of  the  flutes  on  the  shaft  of  the  column,  and  also  a  sec- 
tion of  the  leaves  and  stalks,  and  their  projections  from  the' body  of 
the  capital.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  projections  of  the  leaves 
of  the  volutes  and  abacus  is  also  shown.  The  circular  outlines  of 
the  plan  of  the  different  faces  to  the  abacus  are  drawn  with  a  radius 
equal  to  the  chord  line  of  the  whole  extremity  of  the  circle. 

B  exhibits  a  front  elevation,  on  which  the  breadth  and  height  of 
the  leaves,  volutes  and  abacus  are  clearly  represented.     C  exhibits 

16 


62  THE    COMPOSITE    ORDER. 

a  section  on  which  the  heights  and  projections  of  the  leaves,  scrolls 
and  abacus  are  figured  in  minutes. 


PLATE    XX. 

This  plate  exhibits  all  the  members  of  which  the  entablature  is 
composed,  together  with  the  base.  They  are  all  drawn  to  a  large 
scale,  and  figured  in  minutes.  In  the  cornice,  is  a  front  and  side 
view  of  the  modillion,  and  also  its  under  surface,  showing  the  par- 
ticular form  and  outline  of  each  of  them. 


THE      COMPOSITE      ORDER. 


PLATE    XXI. 

It  has  before  been  stated  that  this  order  is  not  now  in  public 
favor  ;  nor  does  it  appear  to  have  been  held  in  much  estimation 
since  the  days  of  the  Roman  emperors.  It  nevertheless  has  had  a 
place  assigned  to  it  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  practical  books  on 
architecture  for  the  last  century.  This  order  was  employed  by  the 
Romans  in  their  triumphal  arches,  and  in  other  similar  structures. 
It  was  ornamented  in  the  most  profuse  manner  ;  every  member, 
where  propriety  did  not  forbid  it,  being  covered  with  the  most  costly 
and  beautiful  ornaments.  It  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  it  could  not  have  been  viewed  with  that  impartiality  with  which 
it  would  have  been,  if  dressed  in  plain  attire  ;  in  which  case  the  eye 
would,  at  a  glance,  comprehend  the  whole  outline  of  the  order,  and 


ID  K    I'A  I  US      I)  I'1     •'!'  I'll''.       V  [DiR  [WTlMffi  i    !  I  •  E  ti. 


/y  ?<> 


THE    COMPOSITE    ORDER.  63 

immediately  decide  on  its  merits,  instead  of  being,  as  it  in  fact  was, 
so  fascinated  in  viewing  the  great  profusion  of  the  most  costly  and 
elegant  enrichments,  as  to  overlook  the  general  outline  of  the  com- 
position. Believing  these  views  to  be  correct,  and  that  this  order 
ought  either  to  be  left  out,  or  in  some  way  to  be  revised  and 
modernized,  I  have  been  induced  to  examine  in  the  most  critical 
manner  all  the  examples  in  my  possession  ;  and  the  result  has  been 
a  determination  to  try  my  skill  on  its  reform.  How  well  I  have 
succeeded,  it  is  not  my  part  to  decide.  Had  it  been  one  of  the 
established  orders,  I  should  have  shrunk  from  the  task  ;  but  as  this 
composition  is  denied  the  name  and  rank  of  an  order  by  many  of 
our  most  eminent  modern  architects,  it  is  thought  to  be  a  fit  subject 
to  work  upon.  The  shaft  of  the  column  does  not  require  any 
alteration  from  that  found  in  the  ancient  examples  of  this  order,  it 
being  there  a  close  imitation  of  the  Corinthian  shaft,  as  described 
in  the  explanation  of  that  order. 

The  base  of  the  column  has  been  left  off,  because  it  was  generally 
the  same  in  character  and  effect  as  that  which  adorned  the  Corin- 
thian column.  The  one  here  substituted  is  in  the  Grecian  style, 
inasmuch  as  the  upper  torus  is  fluted,  in  imitation  of  many  of  the 
best  examples  of  Grecian  bases  ;  and  the  lower  torus  terminates, 
and  is  supposed  to  stand,  on  a  step  without  an  intervening  plinth. 

The  lower  Corinthian  part  of  the  capital  is  in  exact  imitation  of 
that  found  on  the  arch  of  Septimus  Severus  at  Rome  :  but  in  the 
upper,  or  Ionic  part,  there  are  many  deviations  ;  such  as  the  drop- 
ping of  the  echinus  and  bead  lower  down,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
reduce  the  plain,  naked  and  awkward  space,  left  between  those 
mouldings  and  the  termination  of  the  long  leaves,  and  to  make  a 
union  between  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  capital,  so  as  to 
give  it  the  appearance  of  one  piece  of  composition.     Before  this 


64  THE    COMPOSITE    ORDER. 

deviation  took   place,  there  was  a  complete  separation  between  the 
upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  capital. 

Again,  in  each  face  of  the  upper  part  of  the  capital,  the  stiff 
awkward  form  of  the  Roman  Ionic  capital  has  given  place  to  the 
graceful  Grecian.  The  latter  change  cannot  fail  to  be  approved 
by  all  those  who  are  judges  of  this  art. 

In  the  cornice,  the  modillion,  which  generally  made  one  pretty 
large  member  of  the  bed-mould,  has  been  left  off,  and  a  dentil  sub- 
stituted in  its  place.  In  this  procedure,  the  cornice  of  the  example, 
from  which  the  leaves  of  the  capital  were  taken,  has  been  imitated  ; 
but  in  no  other  respect  can  I  claim  protection  for  that,  or  any  other 
example  of  that  order. 

I  have  endeavored  to  give  to  this  composition  a  more  systematic 
arrangement,  than  that  which  it  has  heretofore  possessed.  It  has 
already  been  stated,  in  describing  the  origin  of  this  order,  that  it 
was  borrowed  from  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic  ;  that,  from  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  long  leaves,  down  to  the  termination  of  the  base,  it 
was  Corinthian  ;  that  the  upper  part  of  the  capital  was  Ionic,  and 
the  entablature  a  mixture  of  both  orders. 

The  only  difference  in  expense,  between  this  composition  and  the 
Ionic,  is,  then,  that  of  the  leaves,  which  form  the  lower  part  of  the 
capital.  As  now  modernized  and  reformed,  it  will  probably  in 
many  situations  be  found  worthy  of  imitation. 

PLATE    XXII. 

On  this  plate  are  the  base,  the  architrave,  and  the  cornice,  all 
carefully  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  figured  in  minutes. 

The  volute  of  this  capital  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  Ionic ; 
and  it  therefore  became  necessary  to  give  a  rule  for  describing  the 


DJ3TA3JjS  Of  Tin    I'O.MI'O.SI'I'K     dkdkr. 


/  V  .  j 


COM  POS1TH     Cai'lTAL, 


Pt.as. 


f:/rt«//ni;i 


\* 


CjT 


S />/-////// 


PEDESTALS.  65 

outline  of  one  adapted  to  this  example.  The  vertical  height  of  the 
volute  is  twenty-eight  and  one  half  minutes,  and  its  breadth  twenty- 
four  and  three  fourth  minutes.  The  eye  is  six  minutes  in  diameter  ; 
and  the  square  within  the  eye,  where  are  to  be  seen  all  the  centres 
on  which  the  outline  is  described,  is  two  minutes  in  height  and  one 
in  breadth.  In  all  the  other  particulars,  the  directions  given  for 
drawing  the  Ionic  volute  will  apply  here. 

PLATE    XXIII. 

On  this  plate  is  exhibited  an  inverted  plan  of  the  Composite  capi- 
tal, and  also  a  front  elevation  and  section  of  it.  Care  has  been 
taken  with  the  drawings  that  they  should  be  correct,  and  their 
different  members  be  figured  in  minutes. 


PEDESTALS 


Pedestals  have  been  considered  and  treated  as  a  part  of  an 
order  by  most  of  the  authors  who  have  published  practical  books 
on  this  subject,  from  Palladio  down  to  the  present  time.  They 
seem  properly  to  belong  to  the  Roman  system  of  the  orders  ;  for, 
in  that  practice,  the  columns,  which  served  to  support  and  adorn  the 
superb  Roman  Temples,  were  based  on  a  continued  pedestal,  which 
extended  a  sufficient  distance  front  of  each  portico  to  permit  the 
steps  ascending  into  the  Temple  to  terminate  against  its  sides. 
In  those  cases,  the  floor  of  the  portico  was  in  the  same  plane  with 

17 


66  PEDESTALS. 

the  upper  extremity  of  the  pedestal.  Nor  was  this  the  only  situa- 
tion in  which  the  Romans  employed  pedestals.  They  were  used 
by  them  in  the  second  and  third  orders,  when  placed  one  over  the 
other,  as  in  the  Coliseum,  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  &c.  The 
pedestal  was  also  employed  in  their  triumphal  arches,  and  in  several 
other  places.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been  quite  a  favorite  with 
that  renowned  people  ;  whence  those  architects  who,  having  never 
seen  the  Grecian  antiquities,  had  drawn  their  information  from  those 
of  Rome,  naturally  imitated  the  Roman  practice  by  adapting  the 
pedestal  to  their  times  and  circumstances. 

But  those  who  have  lived  in  later  times,  and  had  the  advantage 
of  studying,  not  only  the  antiquities  of  Rome,  but  also  those  of 
Greece,  have  very  generally  adopted  the  Grecian  practice,  in  which 
but  few  pedestals  are  found.  The  columns  which  adorned  their 
magnificent  temples,  always  stood  upon  the  uppermost  of  three 
steps,  which  extended  all  around  the  buildings,  each  step  being  in 
height  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  building,  and  not,  as  in  com- 
mon stairs,  to  the  human  step.  There  is  not,  I  believe,  a  single 
instance,  where  the  Greeks  employed  columns  over  columns  on  the 
exterior  of  any  of  their  temples.  They,  therefore,  had  no  use  for 
pedestals.  There  are,  however,  a  very  few  instances,  in  which 
pedestals  were  employed  ;  such  as  in  the  Choragic  Monument  of 
Lysicrates  at  Athens,  and  also  at  one  wing  of  the  Erictheas,  &c. : 
but  these  instances  were  innovations,  which  took  place  subsequently 
to  the  loss  of  Grecian  independence. 

It  cannot,  therefore,  be  supposed  that  the  pedestal  will  be  held 
in  very  high  estimation  by  those  who  adopt  the  Grecian  system 
of  the  orders.  Nevertheless,  there  will  arise,  in  practice,  situa- 
tions where  the  pedestal  will  be  not  only  proper,  but  absolutely 
necessarv. 


V,  -",     1 


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PEDESTALS.  67 

I 

t 

The  proportion  of  the  pedestal  to  the  order  which  it  supports  has 
not  been  determined.  Sir  William  Chambers  proposes  three  tenths 
of  the  height  of  the  order  for  that  of  the  pedestal.'  He  then  divides 
the  height  of  the  pedestal  into  nine  parts  ;  one  of  which  he  gives  to 
the  cornice,  two  to  the  base,  and  six  to  the  dye.  It  is,  however, 
generally  admitted,  that  no  determinate  rule  can  be  given,  which 
will  suit  all  situations  where  the  pedestal  may  be  required.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  left  to  him  who  sees  and  knows  all  the  circumstances 
of  the  case,  to  give  to  it  such  a  proportion  as  seems  to  him  best 
suited  to  the  occasion.  * 

When  pedestals  are  employed  in  balustrades  over  an  order  of 
columns,  the  dye  should  be,  in  breadth,  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
column  at  its  neck  ;  and  in  height,  equal  to  that  of  the  entablature 
on  which  it  stands.  A  pedestal  should  be  placed  exactly  over  each 
column  and  pilaster  in  the  facade.  The  plinth  of  the  pedestal  must 
be  placed  vertically  over  the  frieze  of  the  entablature. 

When  pedestals  are  employed  for  the  support  of  columns,  the 
breadth  of  the  dye  must  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  base  of  the 
column  ;  and  the  height,  generally  from  two  diameters  fifteen  minutes 
to  two  diameters  forty-five  minutes. 

PLATE    XXIV. 

On  this  plate  are  examples  of  the  bases  and  cornices  to  four 
different  pedestals.  Care  has  been  taken,  in  selecting  their  details, 
that  they  should  harmonize  with  the  orders  with  which  they  are 
respectively  associated.  The  base  and  cornice,  selected  for  the 
Ionic  order,  are  in  imitation  of  fragments  of  ornamented  mouldings 
found  in  the   area  of  the   Temple  of  Rhamnus  ;  and  those  for  the 


68  INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 

Corinthian  order,  of  the  base  and  cornice  of  a  tomb  found  at  Car- 
puseli,  in  Asia  Minor.  Both  examples  are  singularly  beautiful  in 
arrangement  and  effect. 


INTERCOLUMNIATIONS 


Intercolumniations  form  a  great  and  distinguished  division 
among  the  elements  of  Architecture.  In  this  division  are  comprised 
the  various  modes  of  adjusting  the  distances  between  columns, 
determined  by  laws  founded  on  reason,  and  looking  to  strength  and 
beauty.  Thus  the  distances  of  columns  from  each  other  are  not 
determined  by  chance,  nor  by  the  caprice  of  one  ignorant  of  this 
art  ;  but  according  to  the  rules  of  proportion,  guided  by  knowledge, 
discretion,  and  a  refined  taste. 

Porticoes,  or  colonnades,  among  the  ancients  were  classed  under 
the  following  names,  or  styles. 

The  first  style  is  called  Pycnostyle,  or  columns  thickly  set  ;  and 
the  distance  from  one  column  to  another  in  this  style  is  one 
diameter  and  a  half.  The  second  style  is  called  Systyle  ;  and  the 
distance  between  the  columns  is  two  diameters.  The  third  style  is 
called  Diastyle  ;  and  the  distance  between  the  columns  is  three 
diameters.  The  fourth  style  is  called  Arreostyle  ;  and  the  columns 
are  four  diameters  from  each  other.  The  fifth  and  last  style  is 
called  Eustyle  ;  and  the  columns  are  two  and  one  quarter  diameters 
distant  from  each  other.  The  latter  style  is  said  by  Vitruvius  to  be 
the  most  pleasing  of  them  all  for  general  use.     Besides  these  styles 


INTERCOLUMNIATIONS.  69 

of  intercolumniations,  porticoes  likewise  take  their  names  from  the 
number  of  columns  of  which  they  are  composed.  Having  four 
columns,  they  are  called  Tetrastyle  ;  six  columns,  Hexastyle  ;  eight 
columns,  Octastyle  ;  and  ten  columns,  Decastyle. 

Among  the  ancients,  thedistribution  of  the  columns  of  their  splendid 
temples  was  governed  by  rules,  which  were  at  once  easy  of  appli- 
cation and  sure  of  accomplishing  the  desired  effect  ;  for,  the  size 
and  relative  position  of  the  columns  being  first  determined,  the 
building  of  which  they  made  a  part  was  then  in  most  respects  made 
subservient  to  it.  Thus  it  appears,  that,  after  the  extent  of  the 
front,  the  number  of  columns  to  be  employed,  and  the  order  to 
be  imitated,  had  been  determined,  the  whole  of  the  extent  of  the 
front  was  divided  into  a  number  of  equal  parts,  depending  on  the 
order  and  number  of  columns  to  be  employed,  and  then  one  or  more 
of  those  parts,  according  to  the  intended  intercolumniation,  taken 
for  the  diameter  of  the  column.  The  height  of  the  column  and  that 
of  the  entablature  resting  upon  it  were  settled  according  to  the 
order  to  which  they  belonged.  Thus  the  facade  of  the  building  was 
formed  according  to  the  most  rigid  rules.  The  extent  of  its  depth 
was  determined  by  making  the  number  of  columns  in  the  flank 
equal  to  one  more  than  twice  the  number  of  those  in  front,  counting 
the  angular  ones  on  both  front  and  flank.  So  much  for  the  practice 
of  the  ancients,  which  was  easy  and  direct.  But  however  much  we 
may  desire  to  imitate  this  practice,  we  seldom  or  never  can  have 
that  pleasure.  Our  buildings,  whether  large  or  small,  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  stories  in  height,  generally  have  their  several  apart- 
ments conveniently  and  economically  distributed,  and  provided  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  light,  admitted  by  one,  two,  or  more  windows, 
of  a  suitable  size  for  that  purpose.  These  circumstances,  to  the 
architect  desirous  of  following  as  much  as  possible  the  ancient  rules, 

18 


70  FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES. 

are  jarring  elements  ;  and  he  finds  it  a  serious  business  so  to  adjust 
them  with  the  proportions  and  distance  of  the  columns,  as  to  pro- 
duce a  perfect  harmony  throughout  the  whole  composition. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  one  order  of  columns  is  employed  over 
another.  When  they  are  so  employed,  the  stronger  should  be  made 
to  support  the  weaker  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  Tuscan  order  should 
support  the  Doric,  and  the  Doric  the  Ionic,  and  so  on.  Stability 
also  requires  that  the  axis  of  the  upper  and  lower  columns  should 
be  in  one  vertical  line.  The  diameter  at  the  base  of  the  upper  co- 
lumn shoirld  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  lower  one  at  its  neck. 


FRONTISPIECES     AND     PORTICOES 


In  some  specimens  of  this  important  portion  of  architecture, 
one  frequently  discovers  a  strange  fancy,  exhibited  in  the  unmean- 
ing cuttings,  carvings  and  twistings  of  the  details,  and  their  frequent 
breaks  over  columns,  pilasters,  tablets,  &c,  which  renders  their  ap- 
pearance quite  ridiculous  to  a  well-tutored  eye.  We  frequently  see 
a  failure,  likewise,  in  the  general  proportion  of  their  outlines  ;  such 
as  a  disproportionate  quantity  of  glass  over  and  at  the  sides  of  the 
door.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  door  is  the  principal,  and 
the  windows  are  subordinate.  The  side  and  fan  lights  should  not, 
therefore,  occupy  a  larger  space  than  is  necessary  to  admit  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  light  into  the  entry  ;  and  where  a  door  is  accom- 
panied by  side  lights,  and  a  fan  light  extending  over  both  door  and 
side  lights,  the  outline  of  its  upper  extremity  should  be  a  segment 


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FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES.  71 

of  a  circle,  and  not  a  straight  line.  In  the  latter  case,  the  distance 
from  the  upper  extremity  of  the  division  which  separates  the  door 
from  the  fan  lights  to  its  top  edge,  will  be  so  great  as  to  produce  the 
appearance  of  instability ;  which  appearance,  by  the  use  of  a  curved 
line  bounded  by  an  arch,  is  wholly  avoided.  But  where  the  fan  light 
extends  over  the  door  only,  a  straight  line,  for  its  upper  extremity, 
is  preferable  to  any  other. 

In  adjusting  columns,  pilasters,  architraves,  &c.  to  this  species  of 
architecture,  nothing  will  direct  the  judgment  of  the  student  so  unerr- 
ingly as  the  often-repeated  maxim  of  proportioning  the  means  to 
the  end.  Let  him  therefore  bear  in  mind  the  extent,  situation  and 
character  of  the  building,  of  which  his  frontispiece  or  portico  is  to 
make  a  part,  together  with  the  size  and  decorations  of  all  their 
elements,  as  well  as  the  burden  which  the  columns  or  pilasters  to  be 
employed  have  really  or  apparently  to  sustain  ;  and,  if  he  possesses 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  art,  the  result  of  his  labors  will  probably 
be  successful. 


PLATE    XXV. 

The  example  of  a  frontispiece  exhibited  here,  is  suitably  con- 
structed for  the  front  of  a  house  of  pretty  large  dimensions.  The 
door  is  divided  in  the  centre  by  a  vertical  line,  one  half  of  which 
will  be  sufficiently  large  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  one  person. 
The  advantage  gained  by  this  practice  is  very  important  in  boiste- 
rous situations,  as  it  will  admit  but  one  half  as  much  cold  air  when 
opened,  as  it  would  were  the  whole  door  opened  at  once. 

This  example,  together  with  the  preceding  ones,  are  drawn  from 
a  scale  of  one  half  of  an  inch  to  one  foot.  All  their  details  can, 
therefore,  be   accurately  measured.      This  door  is  four  feet  two 


72  FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES. 

inches  in  width,  and  eight  feet  in  height.  The  width  of  the  narrow 
rails  is  four  inches  and  five  eighths.  That  of  the  bottom  rail  is 
nine  inches,  and  that  of  the  middle  one  seven  and  three  fourth 
inches.  The  height  of  the  lower  panel  is  twelve  inches  ;  of  the 
small  middle  one,  seven  and  one  half  inches  ;  and  of  the  upper  or 
frieze  panel,  nine  inches. 

A  exhibits  sections  of  a  part  of  the  style  and  panel  of  the  door, 
and  of  the  mouldings,  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size.  B  exhibits 
an  example  for  a  tablet,  decorated  with  sculpture,  which  may  be 
substituted  for  that  in  the  elevation,  when  a  more  ornamented  one 
is  desired.  The  tablet  is  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot. 
m  and  n  represent  the  fillets  which  butt  against  the  tablets.  They 
continue  round  and  form  the  fret.  C  exhibits  a  section  of  the 
pilasters,  as  they  are  connected  with  the  door  and  wall  of  the  build- 
ing, drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  fourth  of  an  inch  to  one  foot,  d  and  d 
show  the  sections  of  both  front  and  side  of  the  pilaster.  To  pro- 
portion the  mouldings  to  the  pilaster,  divide  the  breadth,  which  is 
here  nine  inches,  into  twelve  equal  parts  ;  make  the  bead  equal  to 
one  part  ;  each  of  the  fillets  to  one  and  three  quarters  ;  the  deep 
recesses  or  fillets  between  the  ellipsis  and  fillets,  each  equal  to  one 
half,  and  the  ellipsis  1o  five  and  one  half  parts,  s  represents  a  small 
portion  of  the  section  of  the  door,  where  it  shuts  into  the  rabate. 

D  exhibits  a  section  of  the  threshold  ;  g,  the  front  line  of  the  plinth 
on  which  the  pilaster  rests  ;  f,  a  vertical  section  of  the  lower  extre- 
mity of  the  door,  extending  nearly  half  of  its  thickness  front  of  the 
rabate  on  the  threshold  ;  and  i  j,  a  channel  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  door,  which  is  intended  to  prevent  the  rain,  when  forced  by 
the  wind  against  the  door,  from  being  driven  between  the  door  and 
threshold  into  the  house.  When  this  precaution  is  attended  to,  the 
rain  will  fall  off  on  its  arrival  at  i,  down  to  the  threshold,  and  descend 
to  the  steps. 


FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES.  73 

E  shows  a  plan  of  the  steps  and  threshold,  and  also  a  part  of  the 
wall  on  each  side  of  the  door.  The  elevation  of  these  steps  is  not 
here  represented.  Their  width  is  twelve,  and  their  rise  eight  inches. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  top  step  is  in  the  same  plane  with  that  of 
the  buttresses,  which  are  represented  at  a  and  a.  The  buttresses 
will  be  three  feet  in  length,  two  in  height,  and  one  foot  thick.  The 
distance  between  them  will  be  equal  to  the  united  lengths  of  the 
threshold  and  the  plinths. 


PLATE    XXVI. 

The  plan  and  elevation  of  the  frontispiece  here  exhibited  is  suita- 
ble for  a  house  of  moderate  size,  or  where  the  story  is  not  sufficiently 
high  to  admit  a  fan  light  over  it,  or  when  a  fan  light  is  not  desired. 
The  frame  of  the  door  and  side  lights  are  recessed  into  the  house 
seven  inches.  All  the  details  of  this  example  are  figured  in  feet 
and  inches.  The  tablet  and  the  spaces  between  the  side  lights  and 
the  threshold  are  decorated  with  diamond  panels.  A  represents  the 
tablet,  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one  and  a  half  inch  to  one  foot  ;  C,  a 
side  view  ;  D,  the  front  elevation ;  E,  the  upper  surface  of  the 
buttress,  against  which  the  ends  of  the  steps  terminate  ;  and  C 
exhibits  a  section  of  the  threshold. 


On  Plate  XXVII.  are  exhibited  some  of  the  working  plans,  drawn 
one  quarter  of  the  full  size.  A  and  G  on  fig.  1  represent  a  section, 
and  A  on  fig.  2  an  elevation,  of  the  large  pilaster  ;  B  and  D  on  fig. 
1  the  sections,  and  D  and  D  on  fig.  2  the  elevations,  of  the  small 
pilasters.  C  on  fig.  1  represents  the  section,  and  C  on  fig.  2  the 
elevation,  of  the  diamond  panel.     I  on  fig.  1  represents  the  section, 

19 


74  FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES. 

and  I  on  fig.  2  the  elevation,  of  the  plinth  on  which  the  pilaster  rests  ; 
H  on  fig.  1  the  upper  surface,  and  H  on  fig.  2  the  front  view,  of  the 
threshold.  J  shows  a  front  view  of  a  small  portion  of  the  threshold, 
which  extends  under  the  door  and  is  moulded  on  the  front. 


PLATE    XXVIII. 

The  example  of  a  frontispiece  here  exhibited  shows  a  fan  light 
extending  over  the  door  and  side  lights,  its  upper  edge  bounded  by 
a  segment  of  a  circle.  The  spandrels  made  by  this  curve,  and  by  the 
angles  of  the  pilaster  and  cap,  are  decorated  by  a  plain  honey- 
suckle, the  dimensions  of  which  in  practice  will  be  so  large  that 
they  may  be  wrought  by  a  carpenter  when  a  carver  is  not  at  hand. 
The  tablet  and  panels  under  the  side  lights  are  likewise  decorated 
with  sculpture  ;  but  should  this  be  thought  too  expensive,  plain  panels 
may  be  substituted.  A  exhibits  a  side  view  of  the  pilaster  and  a 
section  of  the  cap  ;  B,  a  section  of  the  steps  and  a  part  of  the  side 
elevation  of  the  buttress;  C,  the  tablet,  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one 
inch  to  a  foot  ;  and  D,  the  plan  of  the  buttress,  steps  and  threshold, 
and  also  sections  of  the  pilasters,  plinths,  &c.  As  all  the  essential 
parts  of  this  example  are  figured  in  feet  and  inches,  and  as  the 
explanation  of  the  foregoing  plates  was  so  full,  no  further  explana- 
tion will  be  required  here. 

PLATE    XXIX. 

The  example  of  a  frontispiece  on  this  plate,  is,  in  its  door,  side, 
and  fan  light,  similar  to  the  one  last  described,  but  differs  very 
widely  from  that  in  its  other  decorations.  The  pilasters  and  enta- 
blature, in  their  proportions  and  the  outline  of  their  mouldings,  are 


JPdMMSE©®. 


T130. 


r 


IV 


__ 


> 


FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES.  75 

in  imitation  of  the  column  and  entablature  on  Plate  VII.,  with  the 
exception  of  the  capital  to  the  pilaster,  which  is  taken  from  the 
Doric  antse  capital.  The  panels  which  decorate  the  lower  part  of 
the  door,  and  those  under  the  side  lights,  are  intended  to  be  diamond 
panels.  In  other  words,  the  panel  is  intended  to  project  forwards 
in  the  centre  to  a  right  line  with  the  stiles  and  rails,  and  from  that 
point  to  incline  on  a  straight  line,  and  on  each  of  its  four  sides,  to 
the  thickness  of  the  other  panels,  at  its  termination  against  the 
groove  which  separates  it  from  the  mouldings.  A  exhibits  a  plan  of 
the  steps,  showing  the  sections  of  the  pilasters  and  the  upper  surface 
of  the  buttress. 

B  shows  a  section  of  one  half  of  a  pilaster,  drawn  to  a  scale  of 
one  quarter  of  the  full  size. 

The  sculpture  which  crowns  the  entablature,  if  thought  to  be  too 
rich  or  too  expensive,  may  be  left  off  without  affecting  the  symmetry 
of  the  composition. 


PLATE    XXX. 

The  example  of  an  Ionic  portico  exhibited  on  this  Plate,  is  in  its 
general  proportions,  and  the  outline  of  its  details,  in  imitation  of  the 
example  of  that  order  as  represented  on  Plate  XIV. 

A  similarity  may  be  remarked  in  the  size  and  construction  of 
the  doors  and  side  lights  of  this  and  of  all  the  preceding  examples. 
This  sameness  I  do  not  strive  to  avoid,  from  the  belief  that  a  great 
variety  in  the  size  and  construction  of  these  essential  but  subordi- 
nate portions  of  architecture,  is  not  required  by  a  correct  taste,  nor 
adapted  to  the  place  they  occupy. 


rl 


7£  FRONTISPIECES    AND    PORTICOES. 

Jf  decorations  are  desired  on  these  windows,  let  them  be  made 
with  a  sparing  hand,  on  stained  glass,  and  of  a  proper  size  and 
figure  ;  for  the  student  must  remember  that  it  is  a  maxim  in  archi- 
tecture, that  the  ornament  must  be  made  for  the  place,  and  not  the 
place  for  the  ornament.  A  practice  has  heretofore  prevailed  among 
designers  and  makers  of  side  and  fan  lights,  and  is  not  yet  quite 
extinct,  of  exerting  their  ingenuity  in  the  contrivance  of  a  great 
variety  of  crooked,  winding  outlines,  which  "they  applied  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  internal  divisions  of  these  sashes  ;  and  their  imagina- 
tion was  again  taxed  in  contriving  a  great  profusion  of  Rosettes,  stars, 
beads,  &c.  After  the  elements  had  thus  been  adjusted  upon  the. 
sash  bars,  their  surface  was  often  adorned  with  gold  leaf.  These 
gorgeous  windowsaare  often  seen  in  dwelling-houses  of  exceedingly 
plain  exterior,  and  present  a  contrast  quite  ridiculous  to  a  well- 
tutored  eye.  The  sculpture  over  each  side  light  should  not  project 
beyond  the  frame  which  encloses  it.  A  exhibits  a  section  of  the 
pilaster  which  separates  the  door  from  the  side  light ;  C,  a  part  of 
a  section  of  the  sash  and  bead  ;  B,  a  part  of  that  .of  the  stile  of  the 
door  ;  and  D,  a  section  of  the  mouldings,  and  a  part  of  the  stile  and 
panel  to  the  door.  These  sections  are  drawn  one  half  of  the  full 
size. 


PLATE    XXXI, 

A  exhibits  a  plan  of  the  steps,  buttresses,  columns  and  pilasters 
to  the  Ion*&  portico  represented  on  the  preceding  plate  ;  B,  the  under 
surface  of  the  architrave  ;  C,that  of  the  panel  enclosed  by  the  archi- 
trave B,  and  recessed  up  just  the  width  of  the  architrave  ;  D,  the 
moulding  of  the  panel  one  half  of  the  full  size. 


/'/  31. 


— ir^ 


^ 


V 


y 


B 


*" 


S3S   i'OJi   A    5@2U3  .j.:_; ji'j'   .;  |  ■■  ■, 


/-/.  3S. 


a       nrrr 


EXTERNAL    AND    INTERNAL    CORNICES.  77 


PLATE    XXXII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  an  example  of  a  Composite  Portico,  having 
four  columns  in  front.  The  proportions  are  in  imitation  of  the 
example  of  that  order  as  shown  on  Plate  XXI. 

Its  character  is  rich,  and  its  size  sufficient  for  a  building  of  large 
dimensions  ;  nor  can  it  P  indeed  with  propriety  be  employed  on  a 
small  building.  It  is  surmounted  with  a  railing  intended  to  be  made 
of  cast  iron,  which  may  or  may  not  be  employed,  as  taste  or  conve- 
nience may  dictate. 


EXTERNAL     AND     INTERNAL     CORNICES. 


Cornices  have  heretofore  been  pretty  fully  treated  of,  as  a  distin- 
guished member  of  each  order.  They  nevertheless  require  further 
notice,  as  employed  separate  and  distinct  from  the  orders  ;  as  they 
necessarily  will  be  in  various  and  important  situations,  such  as  the 
crowning  and  finishing  under  the  eaves  of  all  kinds  of  buildings,  and 
in  many  other  external  situations.  It  is  highly  important  that  when 
so  employed,  they  should  conform  to  the  character  of  the  building 
which  they  decorate.  Cornices  are  also  used,  in  various  internal 
situations  ;  such  as  in  rooms,  halls,  staircases,  &c.  When  so  em- 
ployed, they  are  generally  made  of  stucco.  But  wherever  used  they 
will  be  considered  subordinate,  and  must  therefore  be  in  keeping 
with  the  rest  of  the  apartment. 

20 


78  EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  CORNICES. 

Some  architects  have  attempted  to  determine  the  size  of  a  cornice, 
by  making  its  virtual  height  equal  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  whole 
height  o£the  building,  from  its  base  to  the  upper  termination  of  the 
cornice.  But  these  attempts  have  not  been,  and  in  fact  cannot  be, 
carried  into  universal  practice  ;  for  buildings  of  equal  heights  may 
have  such  different  situations  as  t.o  require  cornices  of  unequal  sizes. 
We  will  suppose,  for  instance,  Iwo  buildings,,  one  measuring  twenty- 
five  feet  in  front  and  the  same  number  of  feet  in  height,  and  the  other 
the  same  in  height  but  fifty  feet  in  front.  It  is  plain  that  the  doors, 
and  windows  with  their  decorations,  of  the  latter  building,  require  to 
be  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  former  one.  Of  course  the 
cornice  of  the  latter  must  have  a  proportionate  increase  in  size. 
We  may  however. assist  our  judgment  by  the  above  rule.  Divide, 
for  instance,  the  altitude  of  the  first-mentioned  building  into  twenty 
equal  parts.  One  of  these  parts  will  be  fifteen  inches,  which  will  be 
a  suitable  height  for  the  cornice  of  that  building.  But  for  the  cor- 
nice of  the  second  building,  take  one  twenty-third  of  its  height,  or 
thirteen  inches.  Suppose  each  of  the  above  described  buildings 
extended  to  the  height  of  forty  feet.  In  that  case,  one  thirtieth  part 
of  the  height  of  the  first,  or  sixteen  inches,  and  one  thirty-third  of 
the  latter,  or  fourteen  and  one  half  inches,  would  be  a  size  suitable 
for  their  respective  cornices. 

Internal  cornices,  as  for  rooms,  staircases,  and  the  like,  differ  in 
their  construction  very  considerably  from  those  already  described. 
Their  height  is  generally  much  less  in  proportion,  and  their  projec- 
tion much  greater.  This  practice  is  both  convenient  and  natural ; 
because  the  cornice  cannot  be  viewed  at  any  great  distance,  and 
its  height  being  only  observed  at  such  a  short  distance  that  the  spec- 
tator is  obliged  to  look  up  from  under  its  projection,  its  front  is 
never  fairly  seen.     In  low  rooms,  where  the  space  from  the  upper 


vyisij'nsi&S, 


VI     ■ 


3» 


4h  Zrt 


— r.». 


/  /\l 

'j0^y) 

1) 


EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  CORNICES.  79 

termination  of  the  architrave  to  the  window  and  the  under  surface 
of  the  ceiling  is  very  small,  it  is  sometimes  expedient  to  confine  the 
height  of  the  cornice  to  a  space  not  exceeding  two  inches  ;  and  in 
this  case  it  will  be  wise  to  increase  its  projection,  so  that  its  height 
and  projection  together  shall  be  about  equal  to  what  they  would 
have  been  if  this  expedient  had  not  been  resorted  to.  This  great 
difference  between  the  height  and  projection  might  at  first  thought 
be  considered  disagreeable  ;  it  is,  however,  adapted  to  the  peculiar 
situation  of  such  a  cornice,  and  much  more  pleasing  than  the  usual 
proportion  would  be. 

In  adjusting  the  proportions  of  these  cornices,  the  size  and  height 
of  the  rooms  should  be  taken  into  consideration.  If  the  ceiling  be 
high  and  the  other  dimensions  of  the  room  small,  the  difference 
between  the  height  and  projection  of  the  cornice  should  not  be  very 
great  ;  because  in  that  case  a  large  projection  would  reduce  the 
size  of  the  ceiling,  and  the  whole  room  would  appear  smaller.  But 
if  the  room  be  of  large  dimensions,  and  the  ceiling  high,  the  projec- 
tion of  the  cornice  may  then  be  considerably  more  than  its  height. 
There  is  less  difficulty  in  determining  the  size  of  these  cornices  by 
fixed  rules,  than  of  those  employed  externally  ;  because  the  differ- 
ence in  the  heights  of  rooms  where  cornices  are  used,  is  not  very 
great.  A  room  less  in  height  than  ten  feet  is  not  often  decorated 
with  a  cornice  ;  and  it  is  not  common  to  see  a  room  more  than 
fourteen  feet  in  height.  A  method  of  adjusting  the  proportion  of 
cornices  to  rooms,  which  gives  much  satisfaction,  may  be  obtained 
by  making  the  joint  extent  of  the  height  and  projection  in  inches 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  room  in  feet. 


80  EXTERNAL    AND    INTERNAL    CORNICES. 

PLATE    XXXIII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  four  examples  of  cornices  for  external  finish- 
ing. A  has  a  sloping  plancer,  which  is  decorated  with  three  elliptical 
flutes,  terminating  at  the  angles  of  the  cornice  against  the  fillets  of 
the  panel  a,  which  is  recessed  up  into  the  plancer  and  decorated 
with  a  rosette. 

B  has  also  a  sloping  plancer  ;  and  it  is  decorated  with  three 
channels,  or  grooves,  which  terminate  at  the  angles  in  the  form  of 
a  fret,  b  shows  a  panel  recessed  up  into  the  plancer,  and  decorated 
with  a  honeysuckle.  » 

C  exhibits  an  ellipsis  recessed  up  into  a  reverse  curve  in  the 
plancer.  The  inverted  plan  of  the  plancer  shows  the  finish  at  the 
angles,     a  shows  a  panel,  and  b  the  ellipsis. 

D  exhibits  an  example  of  a  plain  bold  cornice,  which  will  produce 
a  pleasing  effect  in  practice.  On  Plate  XXXIV.  are  exhibited 
four  examples  of  cornices,  which  do  not  seem  to  require  any  other 
explanation  than  an  examination  of  the  Plate  will  give. 

On  Plate  XXXV.  are  exhibited  four,  and  on  Plate  XXXVI. 
three  different  examples  of  cornices  suitable  for  internal  finishing. 
A  rule  for  determining  their  size  has  already  been  described,  which 
gives  for  each  foot  in  the  height  of  the  room,  one  inch  to  the  height 
and  projection  of  the  cornice.  We  will  suppose  in  practice  a  room 
ten  feet  in  altitude,  and  the  cornice  M,  on  Plate  XXXVII.  to  be 
selected  for  use.  That  cornice  is  forty-five  parts  in  height,  and 
projects*  sixty-four  parts,  which  added  together  make  one  hundred 
and  nine  parts.  Ten  inches,  or  one  inch  to  each  foot  in  the  height  of 
the  room,  must  therefore  be  divided  into  one  hundred  and  nine  equal 
parts.  Then  each  member  of  the  cornice,  both  in  height  and  pro- 
jection, is  equal  to  as  many  of  those  parts  as  are  figured  thereon. 


CENTRE-PIECES.  81 

The  height  of  the  cornice  is  taken  from  a  down  to  b.  The  orna- 
mental part  below  b  may  with  propriety  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
the  frieze. 


CENTRE-PIECES. 


PLATE    XXXVII. 

In  parlors  and  other  apartments  from  whose  ceilings  a  lamp  is  to 
be  suspended,  the  decoration  encircling  the  hook  from  which  the 
lamp  is  suspended  is  called  a  centre-piece.  I  do  not  know  of  any 
precise  rule  by  which  the  proportions  of  the  centre-piece  can  be 
ascertained.  In  a  room  of  about  eighteen  by  twenty  feet,  the  diame- 
ter of  the  centre-piece  should  be  about  three  feet,  or  one  sixth  of 
the  width  of  the  room,  exclusive  of  the  architrave  which  encircles 
it.  Although  this  cannot  be  taken  as  a  general  rule,  it  will  never- 
theless assist  the  judgment  in  adjusting  the  proportion.  Three 
different  examples  are  exhibited  here,  and  two  examples  for  the 
mouldings  which  encircle  them.  These  mouldings  are  drawn  one 
half  of  the  full  size.  A  and  A  show  the  depth  to  which  the  flowers 
are  recessed  up  into  the  ceiling. 

21 


82 


AR  C  H  I  T  RAVE  S. 

No  one  of  the  elements  of  Architecture  is  more  frequently  employed, 
or  of  much  more  importance,  than  the  architrave.  Doors  windows, 
niches,  &c.  are  all  more  or  less  indebted  to  the  architrave  for  their 
principal  decoration.  It  is  therefore  of  importance  that  the  con- 
struction of  this  element  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible,  in  relation 
to  its  size,  symmetry,  economy,  and  adaptation  to  its  place.  The 
mouldings  which  decorate  its  face  should  be  few,  bold,  and 
expressive. 

The  breadth  has  generally  been  determined  by  a  given  portion  of 
the  breadth  of  the  door,  window,  &c.  of  the  room  where  this 
element  is  employed.  But  this  rule  will  not  always  apply  ;  since 
the  breadths  of  the  door  and  the  window  in  the  same  room  are  not 
equal,  and  sliding  doors,  when  employed  to  connect  the  two  parlors, 
are  generally  something  more  than  twice  the  breadth  of  the  other 
doors  of  the  room.  The  door  to  a  room  of  common  dimensions, 
say  sixteen  by  eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  ten  feet  in  height,  will 
be  about  three  feet  in  breadth  and  seven  in  height.  One  sixth  part 
of  three  feet  will  be  six  inches,  which  would  be  a  proper  breadth  for 
the  architrave,  if  there  were  no  other  circumstances  in  the  case. 
But  the  windows  in  the  same  room  would  be  about  four  feet  in 
breadth.  One  sixth  of  four  feet  is  eight  inches,  which  would  be  too 
much  for  the  breadth  of  the  architrave,  as  would  likewise  a  medium 
between  the  two.  Judgment,  improved  by  practice,  must  therefore 
settle  this  question.     The  proper  breadth  in  this  case  would  probably 


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DOORS  AND  THEIR  DECORATIONS.  83 

be  about  six  and  three  fourth  inches,  except  in  the  case  of  a  sliding 
door,  which  would  increase  the  breadth  to  seven  or  seven  and  one 
fourth  inches. 

PLATE    XXXVIII. 

This  Plate  presents  twelve  examples  of  architraves,  of  different 
construction  and  width.  They  are  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size. 
The  members  are  figured  in  such  a.  manner,  that  if  drawn  by  a 
common  two  foot  rule,  calling  each  number  figured  on  the  Plate  one 
eighth  of  an  inch,  an  architrave  will  be  produced  of  just  double  the 
size  of  the  one  imitated. 


DOORS  AND  THEIR  DECORATIONS 


No  department  in  any  building  can  be  complete,  without  one 
or  more  of  these  useful  and  ornamental  portions  of  Architecture. 
Their  beauty  or  deformity  depends  on  their  construction  and  adap- 
tation to  their  place.  To  arrange  the  size  and  proportions  of  his 
doors,  the  mechanic  must  resort  to  his  own  judgment,  which,  though 
not  assisted  here  by  any  precise  or  definite  rule,  will  by  a  course  of 
attentive  practice  soon  acquire  sure  and  infallible  guides. 

A  door  cannot  be  useful,  unless  it  be  of  sufficient  size  for  persons 
of  full  stature  to  pass  and  repass  freely,  without  stooping  or  pass- 
ing sideways.  Two  feet  two  inches  in  breadth,  and  six  feet  four 
inches  in  height,  is  therefore  the  smallest  size.     No  internal  door 


84  DOORS  AND  THEIR  DECORATIONS. 

should  be  more  than  four  feet  in  breadth,  and  about  eight  and  one 
half  feet  in  height,  be  the  room  ever  so  large.  If  a  greater  breadth 
is  desired,  make  the  door  in  two  parts. 

If  a  room  be  fifteen  by  eighteen  feet,  and  ten  in  height,  three  feet 
in  breadth  and  seven  in  height  will  be  a  good  proportion  for  the 
door  ;  but  if  the  size  of  the  room  be  increased  to  eighteen  by  twenty 
feet,  and  twelve  in  height,  three  feet  two  inches  in  breadth  and 
seven  feet  six  inches  in  height  will  be  a  suitable  proportion. 

Folding  qr  sliding  doors  are  frequently  employed  to  connect  the 
two  parlors  ;  in  which  case  it  will  be  proper  to  increase  their  alti- 
tude above  that  of  the  other  doors  of  the  same  room,  about  one  foot ; 
and  as  they  are  made  in  two  parts,  divided  vertically,  each  part 
should  be  somewhat  broader  than  the  other  doors. 


PLATE    XXXIX. 

This  Plate  exhibits  a  design  for  an  eight  panel  door,  and  a  pair 
of  sliding  doors,  suitably  constructed  for  the  same  apartment.  They 
are  decorated  with  their  usual  ornament,  the  architrave,  showing 
the  termination  against  the  block  at  the  upper  angles  of  the  door. 
This  block  should  project  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  beyond  the 
outer  edge  and  front  of  the  architrave.  A  shows  the  tablet  and  the 
block  at  the  angles,  with  the  sculpture  recessed  into  both.  This 
kind  of  sculpture  should  not  project  much  beyond  the  frame  that 
contains  it. 

This  example  is  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  half  of  an  inch  to  a 
foot.  B  exhibits  another  example  for  the  finish  over  sliding  doors, 
drawn  from  the  same  scale  as  A ;  and  C,  a  section  of  the  moulding 
one  half  of  the  full  size.  The  doors  with  their  details  are  figured 
in  feet  and  inches. 


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WINDOWS    AND    THEIR    APPENDAGES.  85 

PLATE    XL. 

The  example  of  a  pair  of  sliding  doors  here  exhibited,  decorated 
with  pilasters  and  an  entablature,  as  a  substitute  for  the  finish  of 
those  on  the  preceding  Plate,  is  not  in  bad  taste  ;  nor  will  it  inter- 
rupt the  harmonious  proportion  of  the  apartment,  by  means  of  its 
decorations.  These  doors  differ  from  the  other  doors  and  windows 
in  their  magnitude,  situation,  and  construction. 

Two  other  examples  of  doors  with  their  decorations  are  also 
exhibited  here. 


WINDOWS    AND     THEIR    APPENDAGES. 


PLATE   XLI. 

No  room  or  apartment  can  be  useful,  of  course,  unless  it  is  capable 
of  receiving  a  suitable  quantity  of  that  necessary  article  light.  The 
windows,  therefore,  constitute  a  very  important  part  of  the  room. 
No  determinate  rule  can  be  given,  by  which  the  size  of  the  windows 
can  be  adjusted  with  regard  to  a  due  admission  of  light.  The  other 
circumstances  to  be  considered  in  their  arrangement  and  formation, 
embrace  the  height  and  extent  of  the  building,  the  number  and 
dimensions  of  the  interior  apartments,  the  number  of  the  windows, 
and  in  fact  the  general  style  and  character  of  the  building  through- 
out. Stability  requires  that  the  windows  should  not  be  placed  too 
near  the  angles  of  the  building,  and  that  the  piers  between  them 
should  be  nearly  equal  in  size. 

22 


86  WINDOWS    AND    THEIR    APPENDAGES. 

Practice  seems  to  have  fixed  the  altitude  of  the  first  story  win- 
dows to  twice  their  breadth  ;  of  those  in  the  second  story,  to  some- 
thing less  ;  and  those  in  the  third  story,  still  less. 

A  suitable  proportion  for  the  windows  of  a  parlor  of  twenty  by 
eighteen  feet,  and  twelve  feet  in  altitude,  is- two  windows,  each  con- 
taining twelve  lights  of  glass  of  twelve  by  nineteen  inches. 

The  second  story  would  require  the  same  number  of  lights  of 
glass,  and  of  the  same  width,  but  seventeen  inches  in  length.  In 
the  third  story,  the  length  of  the  glass  should  be  fifteen  inches. 

In  parlors  and  drawing  rooms  it  is  a  common  practice  to  add  to 
the  length  of  the  windows  by  extending  them  down  within  about 
seven  inches  of  the  floor  ;  and  in  that  case,  to  divide  the  height  into 
two  casements,  the  lower  one  containing  three  lights  of  glass  in 
height,  and  the  upper  one  two. 

Venetian  windows  are  sometimes  employed  in  rooms  and  other 
apartments,  and  in  some  instances  properly  ;  but  these  instances 
rarely  occur.  It  is  advisable  to  avoid  their  use,  if  possible  ;  because 
they  are  seldom  made  to  harmonize  with  the  other  portions  of 
architecture  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  accommodate  them  with  either  shutters  or  blinds,  without 
sacrificing  some  other  convenience.  The  centre  window  may  be  in 
height  twice  its  breadth  ;  and  each  side  window  in  breadth  not  less 
than  one  third,  nor  more  than  one  half  of  that  of  the  centre  window. 


PLATE    XLII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  a  vertical  section  of  the  sash  frame,  showing 
its  cap  and  sill,  the  soffit,  architrave,  and  grounds,  and  their  con- 
nection with  each  other  ;  also  the  back,  and  its  connection  with  the 


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WINDOWS    AND    THEIR    APPENDAGES.  87 

plinth  and  sill  of  the  frame.  It  gives  likewise  an  elevation  of  the 
sash  from  the  upper  extremity  of  the  shutter,  and  a  part  of  the  brick 
work,  together  with  a  section  of  the  stone  cap  and  sill,  with  their 
details  figured  in  inches.  C  exhibits  a  horizontal  section  of  the 
sash  frame,  showing  distinctly  all  its  details  ;  and  also  the  back 
lining,  grounds,  shutters  and  architrave,  with  their  connections  with 
each  other.  These  details  are  drawn  one  fourth  of  the  full  size. 
E  and  F  represent  sections  of  a  part  of  a  stile  and  panel,  and  the 
moulding  for  shutters,  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size. 

PLATE    XLIII. 

A  exhibits  an  interior  elevation  of  a  window,  clearly  showing  all 
its  details  placed  in  their  proper  position,  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one 
half  inch  to  a  foot. 

B  shows  an  interior  elevation  of  a  window  differently  constructed 
from  the  last.  It  is  supposed  to  be  situated  where  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  room  cannot  be  spared  for  folding  the  shutters  into  the  wall. 
In  such  a  case  this  example  makes  a  very  good  substitute  ;  and  where 
the  piers  between  the  windows  are  large,  or  when  only  one  window 
is  situated  in  the  same  side  of  a  room,  it  makes  a  finish  far  from 
disagreeable. 

C  exhibits  a  horizontal  section  of  the  sash  frame  of  the  shutters, 
back  lining,  jamb  casing,  grounds  and  architrave,  drawn  one  fourth 
of  the  full  size.  E  shows  the  block  against  which  the  architrave 
finishes  at  the  upper  angles  of  the  window,  with  a  turned  rosette 
in  its  centre.  A  section  of  it,  taken  through  the  centre  from  a  to  b, 
is  exhibited  at  F. 


88 


BASE    MOULDINGS    AND    THEIR    PLINTHS. 


These  important  members  make  a  finish  at  the  lowest  extremity 
of  the  room.  Until  recently,  they  made  the  lowest  member  of  the 
base,  dado,  and  surbase  ;  but  it  is  fortunate,  as  it  regards  economy 
and  correct  taste,  that  the  two  latter  members  have  been  expunged 
from  that  kind  of  finish.  The  base  and  its  plinth,  therefore,  assume 
a  more  important  character  than  when  they  constituted  only  one  of 
the  members  of  the  pedestal,  or  dado  ;  and  its  height  must  be  some- 
what increased,  and  bear  some  relation  to  the  altitude  of  the  room. 
Although  the  exact  size  cannot  be  determined  by  any  given  portion 
of  the  room,  yet  a  proper  consideration  of  the  altitude  and  size  of 
the  room  will  direct  the  judgment  to  a  correct  proportion. 


PLATE    XLIV. 

On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  six  different  examples  of  base  mould- 
ings, including  their  plinths,  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size  for 
practice.  The  height  and  projection  of  each  member  are  figured  in 
parts. 

Like  the  architrave  before  explained,  each  one  of  these  parts  is 
equal  to  one  eighth  of  an  inch.  These  mouldings  will  be  found 
expressive  and  imposing,  though  neither  of  them  projects  more  than 
seven  eighths  of  an  inch. 


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VASES. 


PLATE    XLV. 

At  A  and  B,  on  this  Plate,  are  presented  two  designs  for  surbase 
mouldings,  which  are  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size.  For  the 
convenience  of  enlarging  or  reducing  their  size,  ihe  members  are 
figured  in  parts. 

C  exhibits  an  example  for  a  baluster,  which  is  four  diameters  in 
height ;  but  it  may  be  adapted  to  any  situation,  by  either  increasing 
or  diminishing  its  height,  as  the  case  may  require.  Its  members 
are  figured  in  parts. 

D,  E,  and  F,  present  three  examples  for  vases  of  different  forms 
and  proportions.  It  will  be  wise  to  imitate  carefully  the  particular 
form  of  their  outline.  They  are  suitably  constructed  for  the  termi- 
nation of  pedestals,  or  posts.  The  largest  diameter  of  these  vases 
should  not  be  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  pedestal  or  post  which  they 
decorate,  nor  less  than  three  fourths  of  the  same.  Each  member 
is  figured  in  parts,  and  the  proportions  are  reckoned  from  the 
central  line. 

23 


90 


ORNAMENTAL     MOULDINGS 


PLATE    XLVI. 

Ornaments  are  more  or  less  valuable,  as  they  harmonize  with 
surrounding  objects.  It  is  wise  and  prudent  to  use  them  with  a 
sparing  hand  ;  for  their  absence  from  the  composition  does  not 
necessarily  imply  defect,  though  it  might  present  an  appearance  too 
plain  and  naked  to  a  good  judge.  But  a  work  unnecessarily  loaded 
with  ornaments  will  be  disfigured,  not  embellished,  by  them.  In  the 
execution  of  ornaments,  the  subject  intended  to  be  imitated,  whether 
it  be  the  chestnut,  the  egg,  or  the  acorn,  they  being  the  usual 
enrichments  of  the  ovolo,  should  be  so  deeply  cut  into  the  moulding 
as  to  produce  the  appearance  of  their  being  almost  detached  from 
it.  The  same  observations  will  equally  apply  to  the  berries,  or 
beads,  which  are  the  standing  ornament  of  the  astragal. 

When  ornaments  are  liable  to  close  inspection,  every  part  should 
be  well  expressed  and  neatly  finished  ;  but  when  their  situation  is ' 
such  that  they  can  be  seen  only  at  a  distance,  the  nice  finish  may  be 
omitted,  but  their  details  must  be  strongly  expressed.  In  sculpture, 
a  few  rough,  bold  strokes,  from  a  skilful  hand,  express  the  subject 
intended  for  imitation  more  effectually  than  the  most  elaborate 
unskilful  efforts  would  be  able  to  do. 

A  presents  an  example  of  an  ornament  suitably  formed  for  flat 
surfaces.  It  is  of  Grecian  origin,  and  expresses  the  simple,  chaste 
character  for  which  all  their  examples  of  ornaments  are  so  remark- 


i.'irnYm'iJ^aV-i'.Ai    W  WW'M'JJ'SVi  &Sa 


/'/.  46 


OJ  JOOOOOOO 


CHIMNEY-PIECES.  91 

able.  B,  C,  and  D,  are  likewise  Grecian.  They  are  suitably  con- 
structed for  mouldings,  and  if  well  executed  will  have  a  handsome 
appearance. 


CHIMNEY-PIECES. 


This  portion  of  Architecture  is  highly  ornamental,  when  tastefully 
constructed.  The  magnitude  of  a  chimney-piece  does  not  always 
correspond  with  that  of  the  room  in  which  it  is  situated.  A  room, 
for  instance,  of  fourteen  by  eighteen  feet,  requires  a  fire-place  of 
three  feet  in  breadth  and  two  feet  ten  inches  in  height  ;  but  one  of 
twenty  by  twenty-eight  feet,  does  not  need  a  fire-place  more  than 
three  feet  six  inches  in  breadth  and  three  feet  in  height.  A  due 
consideration  of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case  is  therefore 
necessary,  to  give  to  the  chimney-piece  such  a  size  as  will  best 
harmonize  with  the  magnitude  and  finish  of  the  room. 

Columns  are  often  employed  in  their  decoration.  This  practice 
is,  however,  in  small  plain  rooms,  to  be  avoided  ;  because  the 
chimney  necessarily  projects  into  the  room  about  one  foot,  and  if 
the  projection  of  the  columns  be  added,  it  will  have  the  effect  of 
reducing  the  breadth  of  the  room  very  considerably,  in  a  place,  too, 
where  the  width  of  the  room  is  of  the  most  importance.  Besides, 
although  a  column  and  its  entablature,  when  of  sufficient  magnitude, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  portions  of  Architecture,  yet  it  must  be 
remembered,  that  when  reduced  to  small  dimensions  its  details  are 
also  proportionably  reduced,  and  their  appearance  rendered  small 


92  CHIMNEY-PIECES. 

and  indistinct,  by  which  means  the  order  loses  a  great  portion  of  its 
beauty.  In  large  apartments,  and  where  the  space  occupied  by  the 
columns  is  not  important,  they  may  sometimes  be  employed  to 
advantage.  But  it  is  believed  that  there  are  few  situations,  in 
common  practice,  where  pilasters  cannot  be  so  constructed  as  to 
render  them  more  appropriate  and  less  expensive  than  columns. 


PLATE    XLVII. 

This  Plate  presents,  at  A  and  B,  two  examples  for  chimney-pieces, 
suitably  constructed  for  common-sized  and  plainly-finished  rooms. 
They  are  drawn  from  a  scale  of  three  fourths  of  an  inch  to  one 
foot.  D  exhibits  the  finish  of  the  flutes  at  the  upper  extremity  of 
the  pilaster,  and  E  a  section  of  the  same.  F  shows  an  elevation, 
and  G  a  section  of  the  block  ornament  and  diamond  panel,  drawn 
one  quarter  of  the  full  size.  H  and  H  represent  the  plans  and 
projections  of  the  pilasters,  the  plinths,  and  also  the  projection  of 
shelf  or  cornice. 

• 

PLATE    XLVIII. 

Two  designs  for  chimney-pieces  are  exhibited  on  this  Plate,  of  a 
richer  character  than  those  last  described.  They  are  suitably  form- 
ed for  rooms  of  something  more  than  the  common  size,  a  presents 
the  elevation,  b  the  section  to  the  block  ornament  to  A,  and  c  shows 
a  vertical  section  of  the  block  ornament  to  B,  taken  through  the 
centre  of  the  fret,  e  is  a  section  of  the  fillets  of  the  fret  passing  from 
the  block  to  the  tablet,  jfis  a  section  of  the  band  to  the  architrave, 
and  g  a  section  of  the  frieze,  drawn  one  quarter  of  the  full  size. 
i  and  i  present  sections  of  the  plinths,  and  also  of  the  cornice. 


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93 


STAIRS 


Every  building  consisting  of  more  than  one  story  is  indebted  to  this 
portion  of  Architecture  for  ornament,  as  well  as  utility.  The  height, 
breadth,  and  length  of  the  steps,  should  be  proportioned  to  the  situation 
and  use  for  which  they  are  constructed.  This  remark,  however,  is 
subject  to  this  qualification,  that  the  height  should  never  exceed  eight 
inches,  nor  the  breadth  twelve.  Every  workman  is  supposed  to 
have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  all  kinds  of  stairs,  except  those  on  a 
circular  plan.  The  method  most  practised,  of  forming  the  circular 
part  of  the  rail  without  a  cylinder,  is  comparatively  of  recent  date. 
To  the  ingenious  Peter  Nicholson,  of  London,  we  are  all  indebted 
for  this  method.  It  was  invented  by  him  and  published  in  the  year 
1792,  and  since  that  time  it  has  wonderfully  extended  itself  into 
practice.  In  the  year  1795  I  made  the  drawings  and  superintended 
the  erection  of  a  circular  stair-case  in  the  State  House  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut  ;  which,  I  believe,  was  the  first  circular  rail  that  was 
ever  made  in  New  England.  This  rail  was  glued  up  around  a 
cylinder  in  pieces  of  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  Since  the 
first  discovery  of  the  true  principles  of  hand-railing,  Mr.  Nicholson 
has  made  several  important  improvements  ;  for  one  of  which,  about 
twelve  or  thirteen  years  since,  the  Society  of  Arts  in  London 
awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  This  improvement  renders  the  subject 
the  most  simple  and  direct  of  any  of  his  methods.  I  have  therefore 
adopted  it  as  my  model  here,  with  some  trifling  deviations. 

24 


94  STAIRS. 

PLATE    XLIX. 

This  Plate  exhibits  two  examples  for  scrolls,  which  terminate  the 
lower  extremity  of  hand-rails  ;  one  of  a  curtail  step,  and  one  of  a 
newell. 

In  order  to  describe  the  scroll,  fig.  1,  make  a  circle  of  three  and 
one  half  inches  in  diameter,  as  is  shown  by  dotted  lines.  To  illus- 
trate this  subject  m  a  clear  and  distinct  manner,  the  circle  is  repeat- 
ed on  a  larger  scale  at  No.  2.  Divide  the  circle  in  the  centre  by 
the  horizontal  line  a  o  b  ;  draw  the  vertical  line  o  e  ;  divide  o  e  into 
three  equal  parts  at  c,  d,  e  ;  through  the  point  c  draw  6  c  5,  parallel 
to  a  b.  Divide  c  d  into  three  equal  parts  at  f,  g,  h,  and  make  c  6 
equal  to  o  f.  Then  from  the  point  6,  and  through  the  centre  o, 
draw  the  diagonal  line  6  o  4,  and  intersect  it  at  right  angles  by 
another  diagonal  line  passing  through  the  centre  o,  and  cutting  6  5 
at  5.  At  right  angles  with  6  5,  draw  5  4,  cutting  6  o  4  at  4  ;  and 
parallel  with  6  5,  draw  4  3,  cutting  5  o  3  at  3.  Draw  3  2  parallel 
to  5  4,  cutting  6  o  4  at  2  ;  and  2  1  parallel  to  6  5,  cutting  5  o  3  at  1 ; 
which  completes  the  six  centres  on  which  the  scroll  is  drawn.  We 
will  now  return  to  fig.  1.  On  the  centre  1,  with  the  radius  1  j, 
draw  j  i ;  on  the  centre  2,  with  the  radius  2  i,  draw  i  h  ;  on  3,  with 
the  radius  3  h,  draw  h  g  ;  on  4,  with  the  radius  4  g,  draw  g  f ; 
on  5,  with  the  radius  5  f,  draw  f  e  ;  on  6,  draw  e  d  ;  which  com- 
pletes the  outside  circle.  The  inside  line,  and  also  those  of  the 
nosing  of  the  steps,  are  drawn  from  the  same  centres. 

To  draw  the  face  mould,  No.  1,  the  rail  is  supposed  to  be  glued 
to  the  scroll  at  the  line  8  11.  A  exhibits  the  pitchboard  ;  c  b,  the 
base  line  ;  and  a  b,  the  raking  line.  Divide  from  d,  the  beginning 
of  the  twist,  to  b,  into  any  number  of  parts,  making  one  intersect 
the  edge  of  the  rail  at  8,  and  another  at  11.     Then  draw  these  lines 


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r>„.  t 


STAIRS.  97 


Construction  of  the  Face  Mould,  No.  3. 

Let  A  D  E  F  G  H  I  be  the  plan  of  the  rail,  and  E  F,  G  H, 
a  portion  of  the  straight  part  ;  I  being  the  upper,  F  the  lower,  and 
D  the  middle  resting  points.  Make  the  stretchout  of  A  D  equal  to 
that  of  D  F.  In  the  figure  of  the  falling  mould,  produce  the  base 
a  e  to  f,  a  e  then  being  equal  to  the  development  of  A  E  ;  make 
a  d  equal  to  the  development  of  A  D,  and  ef  equal  to  E  F.  Draw 
f  I  parallel  to  a  b,  and  cutting  the  upper  side  of  the  falling  mould 
at  I ;  parallel  tofa,  draw  I  i,  cutting  a  6  at  i ;  in  i  I,  make  i  d  equal 
to  I  D  ;  draw  d  m  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  the  upper  side  of  the  fall- 
ing mould  at  m  ;  draw  m  n  parallel  to  f  a,  cutting  a  b  at  n  ;  and 
d  r  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  m  n  at  r.  Join  o  r,  and  produce  it  to 
meet  i  I  at  q ;  make  I  Q,  equal  to  i  q  ;  join  F  Q,,  and  produce 
F  Q,  to  K.  Through  G  draw  K  L  perpendicular  to  K  Q,  ; 
through  I  draw  I  Z  parallel  to  K  Q,  cutting  K  L  at  Z  ;  make  Z  Z 
equal  to  a  o,  and  join  K  Z.  Then  produce  K  Z  to  L,  and  draw 
ALL  parallel  to  Z  Z. 


To  find  the  Face  Mould. 

Draw  L  A  perpendicular  to  K  L  ;  make  L  A  equal  to  L  A, 
Z  I  equal  to  Z  I,  and  join  A  I.  Then  A  I  will  form  the  part  of 
the  face  mould  represented  by  I  A  on  the  plan.  Draw  K  F  per- 
pendicular to  K  L,  and  make  K  F  equal  to  K  F.  Draw  G  G 
parallel  to  Z  Z,  cutting  K  L  at  G,  and  join  G  F.  Again  draw  H  U 
parallel  to  Z  Z,  and  cutting  K  L  at  U  ;  draw  U  H  perpendicular 
to  K  L,  and  make  U  H  equal  to  U  H.  Draw  H  E  parallel  to  G  F 
and  F  E  parallel  to  G  H ;  then  E  F  G  H  will  form  the  part  of  the 

25 


98  STAIRS. 

face  mould  corresponding  to  the  straight  part  E  F  G  H  on  the  plan. 
The  intermediate  points  of  the  face  mould,  which  form  curves  of 
the  outside  and  inside  of  the  rail,  are  thus  found.  Through  any 
point  C,  in  the  convex  side  of  the  plan,  draw  C  Y  parallel  to  Z  Z, 
cutting  K  L  at  Y  ;  and  in  the  concave  side  of  the  plan  at  T, 
draw  Y  C  perpendicular  to  K  L  ;  and  in  Y  C  make  Y  T  equal  to 
Y  T,  and  Y  C  equal  to  Y  C.  Then  T  is  a  point  in  the  concave 
side,  and  C  a  point  in  the  convex  side  of  the  face  mould.  A  suffi- 
cient number  of  points  being  thus  found,  the  curved  parts  of  the  face 
mould  may  be  drawn  by  hand,  or  by  a  slip  of  wood  bent  to  the 
curve.  No.  5  exhibits  a  face  mould  for  the  upper  half  of  the 
rail,  which  is  constructed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  one  just 
described. 


How  to  apply  the  Face  Mould  to  the  Plank. 

Let  a  b  i  g,  No.  4,  be  the  figure  of  the  face  mould,  placed  in  due 
position  to  the  pitch  line  K  L,  as  when  traced  from  the  plan.  X 
represents  the  upper  side,  Y  the  edge,  and  Z  the  under  side  of  the 
plank,  from  which  the  rail  is  to  be  taken.  Draw  g  L  perpendicular 
to  the  outside  of  the  plank.  Make  the  angle  g  L  K,  on  the  edge  of 
the  plank,  equal  to  the  angle  K  L  L,  No.  3  ;  and  the  angle  §-LK, 
on  the  under  side  of  the  plank,  equal  to  the  angle  G  Z  I,  No.  3. 
Make  g  L  equal  to  L  K,  and  draw  the  chord  g  i  in  the  plane  Z 
parallel  to  the  arris  line  ;  and  then  apply  the  points  g  and  i  of  the 
face  mould  to  the  line  as  exhibited  in  the  figure,  and  draw  the  form 
of  the  face  mould. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  the  section  of  a  hand  rail,  drawn  one  half  of  the 
full  size.  On  B,  with  the  radius  B  A,  describe  the  half  circle 
CAD,  and  divide  it  into  three  equal  parts.     Draw  B  1  and  B  2  ; 


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CHURCHES.      •  99 

divide  A  B  into  four  equal  parts  ;  draw  3  i  parallel  to  D  C,  and 
cutting  B  2  at  i ;  draw  i  I  parallel  to  B  1,  and  equal  to  one  and  one 
half  of  the  four  divisions  between  A  and  B  ;  on  t'i  with  the  radius 
i  2,  describe  2m;  and  on  I,  with  the  radius  I  m,  describe  m  n,  and 
draw  n  o. 


CHURCHES 


The  liberality  displayed  by  the  members  of  this  community,  in 
the  ample  appropriations  which  they  so  frequently  make  for  erect- 
ing houses  of  public  worship,  is  highly  creditable  to  them. 

The  magnitude  and  beauty  of  many  of  these  buildings  render 
them  honorable  monuments  of  public  munificence  ;  and  if  many  of 
them  likewise  exhibit  a  barrenness  of  invention  and  ignorance  of 
Architecture,  this  defect  is  to  be  ascribed,  not  to  any  fault  on  the 
part  of  those  who  provide  the  funds,  so  much  as  to  the  disadvan- 
tages under  which  those  labor  who  are  selected  to  construct  the 
building.  We  cannot  expect  a  carpenter  to  shape  an  edifice  in  so 
classic  and  correct  a  style  as  one  who  confines  his  labors  to  the 
study  of  Architecture.  Let  an  architect  of  competent  skill  be  em- 
ployed to  prepare  the  draught  of  the  building,  together  with  the 
working  drawings  for  the  workmen  ;  and  especially,  when  a  plan 
has  been  once  determined  and  begun  upon,  let  it  not  be  in  any 
important  respects  departed  from,  and  buildings  of  the  latter  class 
will  soon  disappear.  Alterations  are  generally  expensive,  and  are 
apt  to  destroy  the  symmetry  of  the  building. 


100  CHURCHES. 

A  House  erected  for  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being,  should 
correspond  in  character  with  the  reverential  feelings  of  those  who 
assemble  within  it.  While,  therefore,  we  aim  at  elegance  in  the 
form  of  the  columns,  pilasters,  entablatures,  ceilings,  windows,  and 
doors,  let  it  be  a  grave  and  simple  elegance,  and  not  of  the  gaudy 
kind.  The  details  should  be  free  from  any  unmeaning  cuttings  or 
twistings.  Light,  gay  colors,  and  all  symbols  of  heathen  worship, 
should  be  avoided. 

The  interior  of  a  church  would  have  a  more  chaste  and  correct 
appearance,  if  without  galleries.  But  to  the  omission  of  galleries 
there  are  objections.  Where  the  society  is  large,  they  cannot  all 
be  seated  upon  the  floor  of  the  building  near  enough  to  the  speaker 
to  hear  his  voice  distinctly  ;  and  the  increased  expense  of  erecting 
a  building  of  sufficient  size  without  galleries,  is  considerable.  It  is 
but  seldom,  therefore,  that  we  see  a  church  of  any  magnitude  free 
from  this  encumbrance.  It  is  a  practice  with  some  to  make  only 
one  tier  of  windows.  This  is  a  very  becoming  practice  so  far  as 
the  exterior  of  the  building  is  concerned  ;  but  in  the  interior,  where 
these  windows  cross  the  galleries,  they  present  a  very  awkward 
appearance. 

The  plans,  elevations,  and  other  drawings,  which  I  have  given  in 
this  example  of  a  church,  hare  been  made  more  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  a  clear  and  distinct  view  of  the  relation  which  the  several 
parts  should  bear  to  'each  other  and  to  the  whole,  than  with  an 
expectation  that  they  will  often  be  executed  in  this  manner. 

Plate  LI.  gives  a  plan  of  the  first  floor,  containing  one  hundred 
and  two  pews,  with  their  size,  and  also  that  of  the  house,  and  all  its 
details,  figured  in  feet  and  inches.  A  exhibits  a  section  of  the 
architrave  for  the  windows  ;  B,  the   capping  for  the  pews .;  C,  a 


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CHURCHES.  101 

section  of  the  moulding  and  a  part  of  the  stile  and  panel  for  the 
wainscot  of  the  pews,  drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size.  D  shows  a 
section  of  the  back  of  the  pews,  and  of  the  seat  and  riser,  figured 
in  feet  and  inches.  E  exhibits  an  example  of  the  pew  door,  and 
the  piece  of  wainscot  required  to  fill  in  between  the  doors,  .also 
figured  in  feet  and  inches.  Each  side  of  the  interior  of  the  building 
is  intended  to  be  decorated  with  columns  and  pilasters  of  the  same 
order  as  represented  on  Plate  XIV. 

PLATE    LII. 

Exhibits  a  plan  of  the  gallery  floor,  showing  the  size  and  number 
of  the  pews.  A  shows  a  section  of  a  truss  for  the  support  of  that 
side  of  the  gallery  fronting  the  pulpit  ;  and  B  an  elevation  of  the 
finish  of  the  front  of  the  gallery,  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one  eighth  of 
an  inch  to  a  foot.  C  shows  a  section  of  the  moulding  which  is  to 
enclose  the  panels  of  the  front  of  the  gallery,  drawn  one  half  of  the 
full  size. 

Plate  LV.  shows  a  plan  of  the  ceiling  of  the  interior  of  the 
house,  and  also  that  of  the  portico,  both  inverted.  The  under 
surface  is  intended  to  appear  as  if  straight  ;  but  to  produce  that 
appearance,  it  must  be  gently  curved  upwards  about  four  inches 
above  a  straight  line,  a,  a,  a,  and  a,  show  the  projection  of  the 
cornice  of  the  entablature.  A  is  an  example  of  the  stiles  and  rails, 
and  the  moulding  which  is  to  enclose  the  panels,  figured  in  feet  and 
inches. 

D  shows  an  example  of  a  sash,  which  is  intended  to  be  glazed 
with  stained  glass,  for  the  admission  of  light  from  the  roof  to  the 
pulpit.     B  shows  an  example  of  the  moulding  which  is  to  crown 

26 


102  CHURCHES. 

the  architrave  under  the  ceiling  of  the  portico,  figured  in  minutes  ; 
and  C,  the  cornice  which  finishes  the  upper  extremity  of  the  front 
of  the  gallery. 

Plate  LVI.  contains  an  example  of  a  pulpit.  It  is  drawn  from  a 
scale  of  one  half  inch  to  a  foot,  and  figured  in  feet  and  inches.  C 
exhibits  the  outline  of  the  mouldings  intended  to  enclose  the  panels, 
drawn  one  half  of  the  full  size  ;  and  D,  the  cornice  which  is  to 
finish  the  upper  extremity  of  the  desk,  figured  in  parts.  It  is 
intended  to  be  three  and  one  half  inches  in  height. 

Either  of  the  examples  of  mouldings  on  Plate  XXXVII.  may 
be  imitated  in  the  outline  of  the  face  of  the  pilasters.  It  is  also 
intended  to  finish  the  vacancy  between  the  blocks  at  the  upper 
extremity  of  each  end  of  the  pulpit,  over  a  and  a,  with  the  same 
outline  of  moulding. 

On  Plate  LIII.  is  exhibited  a  front  elevation,  with  the  scale  of 
feet  by  which  it  is  drawn  annexed.  D  shows  a  plan,  and  C  an 
elevation  of  the  cupola,  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
to  a  foot,  figured  in  feet  and  inches. 

A  exhibits  an  example  of  the  vane  and  the  iron  work  connected 
with  it,  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  fourth  of  an  inch  to  a  foot,  figured 
in  feet  and  inches  ;  and  B,  an  example  of  the  honeysuckles  which 
are  to  decorate  the  upper  extremity  of  the  cornice  to  the  portico, 
figured  in  minutes. 

On  Plate  LIV.  is  a  side  elevation,  and  at  A  an  example  of  one 
of  the  second  story  windows,  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  to  a  foot. 


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PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  103 


On  Plate  LVII.  at  fig.  4,  is  exhibited  an  example  which  shows 
the  construction  of  the  timber  work  of  the  roof  of  this  church,  and 
a  plan  and  elevation  of  the  frame  of  the  cupola.  The  details  which 
are  represented  here  show  the  best  method  of  framing  the  various 
joints  in  the  roof.  They  are  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  to  a  foot,  and  figured  in  feet  and  inches  ;  which  will  render 
them  sufficiently  plain. 


PRACTICAL      CARPENTRY. 


The  principles  of  this  science  should  be  familiar  to  every 
practical  carpenter.  Carpenters  who  do  not  profess  a  thorough 
theoretical  knowledge  of  their  art,  are  apt  either  to  load  their  work 
with  timbers  unnecessarily  large  and  expensive,  or  on  the  other 
hand  to  provide  timbers  too  small  and  weak  to  resist,  for  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time,  the  strain  imposed  upon  them.  A  knowledge 
of  the  stiffness  of  timber  and  other  materials  employed  in  Carpentry, 
theoretically  as  well  as  practically,  will  be  of  the  highest  utility. 
This  information  is  furnished  by  the  results  of  various  experiments, 
made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  different  strains  which 
different  sizes  of  those  materials  can  bear,  by  several  scientific 
gentlemen  of  Europe.  Of  course  these  experiments  were  made  on 
European  timber.  We  therefore  must  make  proper  allowances 
for  the  difference  of  timber.     Different  individuals  have  arrived  at 


104  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

different  results  in  their  experiments.  We  cannot,  therefore,  put 
implicit  confidence  in  any  of  them  ;  but  taking  them  collectively,  and 
making  proper  allowances  for  difference  in  timber,  we  may  assist 
our  judgment  and  obtain  correct  views  on  the  subject. 

The  principal  strains  to  which  timbers  and  other  materials  are 
exposed,  are  the  following  : 

First,  that  strain  by  which  a  beam  is  drawn  in  the  direction 
of  its  length.  The  strength  by  which  the  beam  resists  this  strain, 
is  called  its  cohesion.  The  experiment  by  which  the  cohesive 
power  of  a  beam  or  stick  of  known  dimensions  is  ascertained,  is 
easily  performed  in  the  following  manner.  The  stick  is  suspended 
vertically  by  one  extremity,  and  to  the  lower  extremity  are  attached 
weights,  which  being  increased  until  the  stick  breaks,  thus  deter- 
mine its  cohesive  power.  To  this  strain,  king  posts,  tie  beams,  &c. 
are  liable. 

The  second  strain  is  when  the  load  tends  to  compress  the  beam 
in  the  direction  of  its  length.  To  this  strain,  truss  beams,  pillars, 
struts,  &c.  are  exposed. 

The  third  strain  is  when  the  load  tends  to  break  the  beam  across. 
This  is  called  a  cross  or  transverse  strain.  To  this  strain  all  kinds 
of  bearing  timbers  are  liable. 

The  following  list,  which  gives  the  cohesive  strength  of  several 
beams  and  bars  an  inch  square,  is  taken  from  one  made  by  Mr. 
Emerson.  The  rod  of  cast  iron  is  taken  from  the  experiments  of 
Rennie.  The  amount  placed  opposite  each  kind  expresses  its 
cohesive  strength,  or  the  weight  which  will  be  required  to  break  it 
when  drawn  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 


105 


Iron  Rod  an  inch  square  will  bear 

Cast  Iron         *\  .      " 

Brass  "       ■ " 

Hempen  Rope  " 

Ivory  "         " 

Oak,  Box  and  Plumtree 

Elm,  Ash  and  Beech 

Walnut  and  Plum 

Red  Fir,  Holley  and  Crab  " 

Cherry  and  Hazel  " 

Alder,  Asp,  Birch  and  Willow 

Lead  .... 


u 


76,400   pounds. 

18,656 

35,600 

19,600 

15,700 

7,850 

6,070 

5,360 

5,000 

4,760 

4,290 
430 


It  is  also  given  as  a  practical  rule  by  Mr.  Emerson,  that  a 
cylinder  whose  diameter  is  six  inches,  will  carry,  when  loaded  to 
one  fourth  of  its  absolute  strength,  as  follows.  Iron,  135  cwt.  ; 
Good  Rope,  22  cwt.  ;  Oak,  14  cwt.  ;  Fir,  9  cwt. 

By  these  experiments  we  see  what  an  immense  load  a  rod  of  one 
inch  square  is  capable  of  suspending.  And  we  likewise  see  that 
this  strain  is  not  likely  to  be  overrated  in  practice. 

Suppose  it  required  to  know  the  weight  that  an  oak  joist  of  three 
by  four  inches  will  sustain.  Multiply  the  depth  by  the  breadth  of 
the  joist  in  inches  ;  and  that  product,  which  is  twelve,  by  the  number 
of  pounds  set  against  oak  in  the  table,  7850.  The  product,  94,200 
pounds,  is  the  answer. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  strain,  that  of  compression  in  the 
direction  of  its  length.  But  few  experiments  on  this  strain  have 
been  made,  and  the  results  of  those  few  do  not  agree.  It  is  main- 
tained by  some  writers  that  the  resistance  to  compression  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  extension  ;  but  the  experiments  of  Du  Hamel  on 
cross  strain,  seem  to  prove  that  the  resistance  to  compression  is  not 

27 


106 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 


more  than  two  thirds  of  that  to  extension.  It  is  however  fortunate 
for  the  practical  workman  that  this  strain  is  not  often  overrated  ; 
for  it  rarely  happens  in  practice  that  a  body  employed  to  sustain 
a  heavy  load  is  found  insufficient  for  that  purpose. 

According  to  Mr.  Rondelet's  experiments  on  cubic  inches  of 
oak,  it  required  from  5000  to  6000  pounds  to  crush  a  piece  of  that 
size  ;  and  under  this  pressure  its  length  was  reduced  more  than 
one  third. 

Mr.  Rennice's  experiments  produced  results  considerably  lower. 
A  cubic  inch  of  elm  was  crushed  by  1284  pounds  ;  American  pine 
by  1606  pounds  ;  and  English  oak  by  3860  pounds. 

We  now  come  to  the  cross  strain,  to  which  all  bearing  beams, 
joists,  &c.  are  liable.  The  resistance  to  this  strain  is  much  less 
than  that  of  either  of  the  others. 


A  Table  of  the  Cross  or  Transverse  Strain  of  different  kinds  of  Wood,  each 
Piece  being  one  foot  long,  one  inch  broad,  and  one  inch  deep. 

Oak    . 

Ash 

Beech 

Elm     . 

Walnut,  green 

Spruce,  American 

Hard  Pine,  do. 

Birch  . 

Poplar,  Lombard 

Chestnut 

The  above  table  is  selected  from  Tredgold's  Carpentry.  It 
expresses  the  breaking  weight  of  each  piece.  It  will  not,  therefore, 
be  proper  to  permanently  load  either  of  the  pieces  with  more  than 


660 

pounds 

635 

(i 

677 

« 

540 

(C 

487 

Ci 

570 

ll 

658 

it 

517 

II 

327 

u 

450 

u 

PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  107 

one  half  of  the  breaking  weight.  The  effect  of  this  strain  produces, 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  beam,  a  compression  in  the  direction  of  its 
length  ;  and  on  the  under  part,  an  extension  in  the  direction  of  its 
length.  To  illustrate  this  subject  more  fully,  I  will  here  introduce 
some  of  Du  Hamel's  experiments  on  the  stiffness  of  beams,  the 
results  of  which  ought  to  be  well  understood. 

Du  Hamel  took  six  bars  of  willow,  three  feet  long  and  one  and 
one  half  inch  square.  After  suitable  experiments,  he  found  that 
they  were  broken  by  525  pounds  on  an  average.  Six  bars  were 
next  cut  through  with  a  saw  one  third  of  the  depth  from  the  upper 
surface,  and  each  cut  was  filled  with  a  wedge  of  dry  oak,  inserted 
with  a  little  force.  These  were  broken  by  551  pounds  on  an 
average.  Six  other  bars  were  broken  through  by  542  pounds  on 
an  average,  after  being  cut  half  through  and  filled  up  in  a  similar 
manner.  Six  other  bars  were  cut  three  fourths  through,  and  broken 
by  the  pressure  of  530  pounds  on  an  average.  A  baton  was  then 
cut  three  fourths  through,  and  loaded  until  nearly  broken.  It  was 
then  unloaded,  and  a  thicker  wedge  was  introduced  tightly  into  the 
cut,  so  as  to  straighten  the  bar  by  filling  up  the  space  left  by  the 
compression  of  the  wood.  In  this  state  the  bar  was  broken  by  577 
pounds. 

From  these  experiments  we  perceive  that  more  than  two  thirds 
of  the  thickness  of  a  beam  contributes  nothing  to  its  strength.  And 
here  we  also  see,  that  the  compressibility  of  this  kind  of  strain 
appears  much  greater  than  its  dilatability,  which  circumstance 
greatly  increases  its  power  of  withstanding  a  transverse  strain. 

We  see  likewise  that  gains  may  be  cut  from  the  upper  surface  of 
a  beam  downwards,  to  one  third  or  one  half  of  the  depth,  and  joists 
inserted  tightly  therein,  without  reducing  the  strength  of  the  beam. 
Observe,  however,  that  the  size  of  the  joists  is  not  reduced  by 


108  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

shrinkage.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  all  the  experiments  made 
for  ascertaining  the  resistance  to  pressure,  the  strength  of  the  beam 
is  found  to  be  as  the  breadth  and  square  of  the  depth  directly,  and 
inversely  as  the  length.  The  strength  of  a  beam  therefore  depends 
chiefly  on  its  depth,  or  rather  on  that  dimension  which  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  strain.  If  a  beam  two  inches  deep  and  one  broad 
support  a  given  weight,  another  beam  of  the  same  depth  and  double 
the  breadth  will  support  double  the  weight.  But  if  a  beam  two 
inches  deep  and  one  inch  broad  support  a  given  weight,  another 
of  four  inches  deep  and  one  inch  broad  will  support  four  times  the 
weight.  Hence,  beams  of  equal  breadths  are  to  each  other  as  the 
square  of  their  depths.  Again,  if  a  beam  of  a  given  cross  section 
and  one  foot  long  support  a  known  weight,  another  beam  of  the 
same  cross  section  but  two  feet  long  will  support  only  half  the 
known  weight. 

Buffbn's  experiments,  which  were  made  on  large  scantlings,  and 
were  therefore  free  from  those  irregularities  unavoidable  on  small 
specimens,  would  seem  to  show  that  the  strength  diminishes  in  a 
ratio  greater  than  the  inverse  proportion  of  the  length.  Both  reason 
and  experience  seem  to  confirm  the  truth  of  these  experiments. 

A  simple  arithmetical  rule,  derived  from  these  experiments,  is 
therefore  given,  by  which  the  breaking  weight  of  any  scantling, 
the  breadth,  depth  and  length  being  given,  may  be  known.  Divide 
the  breaking  weight  by  the  length  in  feet  ;  subtract  10  from  the 
quotient  ;  multiply  the  remainder  by  the  breadth,  and  that  product 
by  the  square  of  the  depth,  both  expressed  in  inches.  The  result  is 
the  greatest  load  in  pounds. 

For  example.  Required  the  resistance  of  a  spruce  joist  17  feet 
long,  12  inches  in  depth,  and  2  inches  in  breadth.  The  breaking 
weight  placed  against  spruce  in  the  above  list  is  570.     Divide  570 


iiiiiiF:*; iy -.rirr . 


/•/. .;; 


}>«.  j 


. 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  109 

by  17,  the  length  in  feet,  and  you  have  33  for  the  quotient  nearly. 
Subtract  10  from  33,  and  the  remainder  is  23.  This  remainder 
being  multiplied  by  2,  the  breadth  in  inches,  the  product  is  46. 
Multiply  this  product  by  144,  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches 
(the  square  of  any  number  being  obtained  by  multiplying  it  by  itself), 
and  you  have  6624  for  the  answer.  I  have  left  out  the  fractions  in 
the  above  operation,  knowing  that  any  deviation  which  makes  the 
result  smaller,  is  on  the  safe  side.     Arts.  6624. 

Required  the  resistance  of  a  hard  pine  beam,  20  feet  long,  12 
inches  in  depth,  and  10  inches  in  breadth.     Ans.  31,680. 

We  must  recollect  that  all  the  experiments,  from  which  the  above 
results  are  obtained,  were  made  on  wood  of  the  most  perfect  kind, 
free  from  knots,  shakes,  spots,  or  rot,  and  not  cross-grained,  &c. 
Every  practical  workman  knows  that  in  roofs,  floors,  or  any  other 
piece  of  framing  of  any  considerable  magnitude,  such  perfection  in 
timber  cannot  be  expected.  It  will  be  wise  in  him,  therefore,  to 
make  all  due  allowance  for  imperfections  in  timber. 

PLATE    LVII. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  an  example  of  a  truss  simply  constructed  for  a 
roof  of  30  feet  span.  I  shall  describe  the  different  strains  to  which 
this  truss  is  liable,  and  the  best  means  of  resisting  them. 

If  a  load  be  laid  on  the  rafters  of  this  truss,  it  is  evident  that  the 
downward  pressure  will  cause  the  heads  of  the  rafters  to  press  hard 
against  the  king  post,  and  the  lower  ends  to  press  equally  hard 
against  the  abutment  at  each  end  of  the  tie  beam.  The  rafters  are 
thus  strained  by  a  compression  in  the  direction  of  their  length  ;  and 
if  no  other  strain  were  to  be  resisted,  a  stick  of  timber  of  small 
dimensions  would  be  sufficient.    But  it  is  evident  that  a  cross  strain  is 

28 


HO  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

also  to  be  provided  for.  The  latter  strain  must  be  resisted  by  struts, 
and  by  making  the  rafter  of  a  size  equal  to  the  resistance  of  that 
strain.  The  pressure  of  the  rafters  against  the  abutment  at  each 
end  of  the  tie  beam,  causes  that  beam  to  be  strained  by  an  extension 
in  the  direction  of  its  length  ;  and  moreover  the  load  laid  upon  this 
beam,  together  with  the  ceiling  which  is  suspended  from  the  under 
surface,  produces  a  cross  strain,  which  must  be  resisted  by  suspend- 
ing this  beam  by  the  king  post,  and  by  making  it,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  rafters,  of  sufficient  size  to  resist  the  pressure. 

The  strain  on  the  king  post  is  an  extension  in  the  direction  of  its 
length.  A  small  piece  of  timber  is  therefore  adequate  to  resist  that 
strain  ;  for  we  have  seen  that  an  oak  joist  of  three  by  four  inches  is 
capable  of  suspending  94,200  pounds.  The  pressure  of  the  rafters 
against  the  head  of  this  post  being  very  great,  they  will  be  apt  to 
indent  themselves  into  the  head  of  the  post,  and  cause  a  small  settle- 
ment of  the  roof,  unless  the  post  be  made  of  hard  wood.  But  let  it 
be  observed,  moreover,  that  this  part  of  the  king  post  should  be 
made  as  small  as  the  strain  on  the  post  will  admit  ;  otherwise  the 
shrinkage  of  the  post  will  produce  the  same  effect  as  the  indentation 
of  the  rafters.  The  strain  on  the  strut  is  wholly  that  of  a  compres- 
sion in  the  direction  of  its  length,  which  a  small  piece  of  timber 
will  be  able  to  resist. 

Having  now  given  the  theory  of  the  principal  strains  of  this 
section,  we  will  give  some  practical  advice  in  relation  to  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work.  All  bearing  joints  ought  to  be  made  at  right 
anoles  with  the  strain.  A  exhibits  the  best  method  of  constructing 
the  joints  at  the  head  of  the  rafter  and  at  the  ends  of  the  straining 
beam  when  they  butt  against  the  queen  post.  The  dotted  lines  sliow 
the  length  of  the  tenon,  which  need  not  be  more  than  one  and  one 
half  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  must  be  made  to  fit  the  mortice  in  the 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  m 

most  perfect  manner.  The  bearing  surfaces  of  the  post,  rafter,  and 
straining  beam,  should  be  in  one  even  plane,  that  the  joint  may  be 
perfect  throughout  its  whole  surface.  The  ends  of  the  tenons  should 
likewise  fit  exactly  at  the  bottom  of  the  mortice.  Pins  are  not 
required  here.  These  observations  are  intended  to  apply  to  all 
other  joints  in  framing. 

B  exhibits  the  method  of  connecting  the  foot  of  the  king  post  to 
the  tie  beam.  The  tenon  in  this  case  is  only  two  inches  long. 
The  bolt  shown  here  is  intended  for  a  large  roof,  where  two  nuts 
are  required,  and  in  this  case  need  not  be  more  than  one  and  one 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  will  require  a  thick,  strong  head 
and  nuts,  three-fourths  or  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  and 
care  should  be  iaken  that  the  thread  be  of  a  suitable  size  and  well 
cut,  and  that  the  iron  of  which  they  are  made  is  of  the  best  quality. 
We  shall  not  doubt  that  the  size  here  mentioned  is  sufficient,  when 
we  consider  that  a  bar  of  iron  one  inch  square  is  capable  of 
suspending  76,400  pounds. 

C  exhibits  a  method  of  connecting  the  head  of  the  queen  post  to 
the  principal  rafter.  The  tenon  in  this  case  is  not  required  to  be 
more  than  one  and  one  half  of  an  inch,  and  this  length  is  quite  suffi- 
cient for  the  tenon  at  the  head  and  foot  of  the  struts.  E  exhibits 
an  elevation  of  a  part  of  the  tie  beam,  the  principal  and  small  rafter, 
a  section  of  the  plates  and  purloins  and  method  of  connecting  them 
together  ;  also  the  best  way  of  securing  the  foot  of  a  principal  rafter 
by  an  iron  strap.  F  shows  the  upper  surface  of  a  part  of  the  tie 
beam.  Two  inches  in  the  centre  of  the  beam  is  left  uncut,  whilst 
the  wood  on  each  side  of  it  is  cut  away  to  form  the  abutments  for 
the  foot  of  the  rafter. 

D  shows  a  piece  of  the  principal  and  small  rafters,  and  a  section 
of  the  purloin.     That  part  of  the  purloin  expressed  by  dotted  lines 


112  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

against  the  principal  rafter,  is  notched  on  to  the  rafter,  the  purloin 
being  nine  inches  deep.  Two  and  a  half  inches  are  cut  out  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  purloin,  one  half  inch  out  of  the  principal 
rafter,  and  three  inches  out  of  the  small  rafter.  The  distance 
between  the  two  rafters  is  three  inches. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  an  example  of  a  truss  for  a  roof  of  forty-four  feet 
span.  It  is  constructed  with  iron  queen  posts  as  a  substitute  for 
wood,  and  thus  avoids  the  difficulty  of  shrinkage  and  indentation  of 
the  heads  of  the  queen  post.  A  bar  of  iron  one  inch  square  is 
sufficiently  large  to  resist  any  strain  which  may  happen  to  these 
posts. 

I  and  J  exhibit  a  method  of  connecting  the  heads  of  the  principal 
rafters  with  the  straining  beam. 

Fig  3  exhibits  an  example  of  a  truss  for  a  roof  of  eighty  feet 
span.  The  depth  of  the  timbers  is  figured  on  the  plan,  and  they 
may  all  be  nine  inches  in  breadth,  except  the  small  rafters,  which 
may  be  three  inches. 

PLATE    LVIII. 

A  exhibits  an  example  of  a  truss  partition  suitably  constructed 
for  a  situation  where  the  timbers,  either  below  or  above  it,  require 
support.  The  truss  being  placed  over  the  doors,  it  does  not  there- 
fore interfere  as  to  these  doors  being  placed  in  any  situation 
desired,  a  a  show  two  iron  rods,  to  which  the' timbers  below  may 
be  suspended.  Three  inches  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  thickness 
of  this  partition,  unless  the  story  be  made  more  than  ten  feet  in 
height. 

B  shows  a  method  of  framing  the  principal  rafters  through  the 
king  post,  their  ends  bearing  against  each  other.     C  exhibits  a  side 


C  AlEi  IF'-Ii  Vi  'J'Ji'T  . 


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PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  113 


view  of  the  king  post,  showing  the  mortice  made  through  it,  which  is 
six  inches  in  breadth,  and  leaves  two  inches  of  wood  on  each  side 
of  it.  If  this  example  be  faithfully  framed,  it  leaves  no  chance  for 
shrinkage  or  indentation. 

D  shows  an  example  for  a  wrought  iron  truss  of  twenty-six  feet 
span.     This  truss  is  capable  of  being  extended  to  a  greater  length 
if  desired,     a,  b,  c,  are   pieces   of  wood   used  for   the   purpose  of 
preventing  the  truss  from  tumbling. 

F  and  G  exhibit  different  methods  of  scarfing  timbers,  figured  in 
feet  and  inches,  and  plain  to  inspection.  The  ends  of  the  iron 
straps  on  F  are  let  into  the  beam. 

E  shows  the  best  method  of  constructing  a  floor  for  a  dwelling- 
house.  The  beam  lying  under  the  partition  which  separates  the 
rooms  from  the  entry,  is  six  by  twelve  inches  ;  the  one  in  the  centre 
between  the  rooms  and  under  the  sliding  doors,  ten  by  twelve  ; 
the  trimmer  joists  four  by  twelve,  and  the  common  joists  two  by 
twelve. 

a,  a,  show  two  rows  of  stiffeners,  which  may  be  made  with  pieces 

of  inch  boards  that  are  of  little  or  no  value.  They  should  be  cut 
in,  so  as  to  make  a  perfect  joint  against  the  sides  of  the  joists,  and 
fitted  in  with  a  little  force.  They  should  never  be  omitted  in  a  floor 
of  this  sort,  where  the  joists  have  more  than  ten  feet  bearing  ;  for 
they  stiffen  and  strengthen  the  floor  exceedingly.  H  shows  the 
method  of  framing  the  trimmer  joists  ;  J,  the  joists  into  the  beam  ; 
and  K,  the  end  of  a  joist  cut  so  as  to  rest  on  a  brick  wall. 

If  a  floor  of  a  dwelling-house  be  loaded  with  people,  to  which  it 
is  always  liable,  the  load  is  then  equal  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds  on  each  square  foot ;  we  therefore  see  that  the  floor  of  a 
room  of  twenty  by  seventeen  feet,  must  be  capable  of  resisting  a 
pressure  of  40,800  pounds. 

29 


U4  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

The  bearing  weight  of  one  of  these  joists  (supposing  them  to  be 
of  spruce),  is  obtained  as  follows.  The  breaking  weight  of  spruce 
is  570.  Divide  570  by  the  length  of  the  joist,  which  is  17  feet,  and 
you  obtain  33  feet  nearly  (for  I  leave  out  the  decimals).  Deduct 
10  from  33,  and  the  remainder  is  23.  Multiply  23  by  2,  the  breadth 
of  the  joist,  and  you  obtain  46.  Multiply  48  by  the  square  of  the 
depth  of  the  joisi,  which  is  144,  and  you  obtain  6624,  which  is  the 
breaking  weight  ;  and  the  breaking  weight  of  the  20  joists  collec- 
lively  which  are  in  the  floor  (I  call  each  of  the  trimmers  equal  to 
two  common  joists),  is  132,480  pounds.  And  they  contain  680  feet 
of  timber,  board  measure. 

We  will  now  see,  in  the  same  manner,  what  the  resistance  to 
pressure  is,  of  a  floor  framed  in  the  common  way,  with  a  beam  lying 
lon<ntudinally  through  the  centre  of  the  room,  twelve  inches  square, 
and  filled  up  on  each  side  with  joists  four  by  four  inches.  The 
breaking  weight  of  the  beam,  if  of  spruce,  is  31,104  pounds.  In 
this  calculation  I  do  not  allow  any  diminution  in  the  strength  of  the 
beam  on  account  of  the  gains  cut  into  it,  because  if  the  joists  are 
tighdy  pressed  into  the  gains  and  prevented  from  shrinking,  the 
beam  will  not  be  weakened.  31,104  pounds  is  one  half  of  the 
ultimate  strength  of  the  floor.  Double  this  sum,  and  you  have 
62,208  for  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  whole  floor.  It  requires  602 
feet  of  timber,  board  measure,  to  complete  this  floor.  By  this  cal- 
culation we  see  that  with  the  same  quantity  of  timber  in  the  wide 
joist  floor,  we  have  more  than  double  the  strength  that  is  obtained 
by  a  beam  and  joist  floor. 

If  a  church  be  made  of  wood,  and  without  a  gallery,  it  is  common 
to  frame  the  sides  with  a  girt,  placed  about  midway  between  the 
plate  and  the  sill.  The  posts  and  girts  in  this  case  cannot  be  less 
than  ten  inches,  and  the  studs  four  by  four  inches.     Let  us  suppose 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  115 

a  building,  fifty  feet  long  and  twenty-five  high,  to  be  framed  in  this 
way.  The  mortice  made  in  the  middle  of  the  post  cannot  be  less 
than  two  inches  ;  and  the  pin-holes,  which  pass  through  the  tenon 
of  each  girt,  than  two  inches  more.  The  tenon  and  pin-holes  reduce 
the  solid  part  of  the  post  to  eight  inches,  and  even  less  :  for,  in 
taking  the  square  of  the  depth,  it  must  be  taken  in  two  parts  ;  first, 
from  the  face  of  the  post  to  the  mortice,  two  inches,  the  square  of 
which  is  four  ;  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  post  beyond  the 
mortice  is  six  inches,  the  square  of  which  is  thirty-six,  which 
with  the  four  added  makes  forty  ;  whereas  the  square  of  eight  is 
sixty-four. 

If  these  posts  be  of  spruce,  the  bearing  weight  of  each  will  be 
3840,  and  collectively  15,360.  Double  this  sum,  and  we  have 
30,720  pounds  ;  which  is  the  ultimate  resistance  to  any  strain  to 
which  the  whole  side  of  the  house  is  liable.  The  greatest  force 
produced  by  the  wind  on  a  vertical  wall  is  equal  to  forty  pounds  on 
a  square  foot.  It  will  therefore  be  unsafe  not  to  afford  a  resistance 
fully  adequate  to  overcome  that  strain.  The  posts,  girts  and  studs, 
will  contain  2083  feet,  board  measure.  We  will  now  suppose  this 
facade  to  be  framed  with  spruce  studs,  twenty-five  feet  long,  two 
inches  thick,  and  eight  inches  deep.  The  breaking  weight  of  one 
is  1944  ;  and  of  thirty-seven,  the  number  required  to  complete  the 
side,  71,928  pounds,  which  is  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  whole 
side  ;  and  they  contain  altogether  1354  feet,  board  measure. 

I  leave  this  subject  without  comment,  trusting  that  the  practical 
workman  will  see  the  immense  advantage  gained  by  the  deep  joist 
and  deep  stud  1'raming,  and  decide  in  their  favor. 


116  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

PLATE   LIX. 

On  this  Plate  is  exhibited  an  example  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
as  taken  by  Stewart  &  Revett  from  the  Choragic  Monument  of 
Lysicrates  at  Athens.  It  is  figured  in  feet,  inches,  and  decimal 
parts  of  an  inch.  Had  I  intended  to  publish  this  example  at  the 
commencement  of  the  work,  I  should  have  given  it  a  place  by  the 
side  of  the  Corinthian  order  ;  but  as  that  was  not  the  case,  being 
aware  of  the  high  estimation  in  which  this  composition  is  held  by 
the  lovers  of  the  art,  I  have  supposed  it  better  to  give  it  a  place  at 
the  end  of  the  book  than  not  at  all. 

PLATE    LX. 

On  this  Plate  is  exhibited  a  series  of  designs  for  Fences,  Win- 
dows, Guards,  &c.  In  this  construction  a  view  was  had  to  their 
being  made  of  cast  iron.  They  are  drawn  from  a  scale  of  one 
half  inch  to  a  foot.  H  and  I  exhibit  two  different  examples  for 
frets.  H  is  divided  into  seventeen,  and  I  into  nine  parts.  I  have 
given  here  the  manner  of  forming  the  angle  of  each  design. 


THE     END. 


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